THE 

GENERAL  EDUCATION 
HOARD 


1903-1914 


? 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


FROM  THE  LIBRARY  OF 

JOHN  F.  ROSS 


THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 


oYt 


THE  GENERAL 
EDUCATION  BOARD 


AN  ACCOUNT  OF  ITS 
ACTIVITIES 


V 
1902-1914 


With  32  Full  Page  Illustrations  and  31  Maps 


NEW  YORK 
GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

6l  BROADWAY 
I9IS 


Copyright,  1915,  by 
THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

All  rights  reserved,  including  that  of 

translation  into  foreign  languages, 

including  the  Scandinavian 


Ed.  -  Psych. 
Library 

LC 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

OFFICERS  AND  MEMBERS  OF  THE  GENERAL  EDUCA- 
TION BOARD xiii 

INTRODUCTORY  NOTE xv 

I.  HISTORY  OF  THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD  3 

II.  RESOURCES  AND  EXPENDITURES      ....  15 

III.  FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS;  BOYS  AND  GIRLS  CLUBS  18 

IV.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION         71 

V.  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES 103 

VI.  MEDICAL  EDUCATION 160 

VII.  RURAL  EDUCATION 179 

VIII.  NEGRO  EDUCATION 190 

IN  MEMORIAM 210 

APPENDICES: 

I.  CHARTER  OF  THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD  212 

II.  LETTERS  OF  GIFT  AND  REPLIES  THERETO    .  •   .  216 

(a)  MR  JOHN  D.  ROCKEFELLER 

(b)  Miss  ANNA  T.  JEANES 

III.  CONTRACTS  BETWEEN  WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY 

AND  BARNES  HOSPITAL 225 

CONTRACT   BETWEEN   YAT.E  UNIVERSITY   AND 

NEW  HAVEN  HOSPITAL          232 

INDEX 243 


1791604 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Photogravure  frontispiece       .     .     .     John  D.  Rockefeller 

LIST  OF  HALF-TONES 

FACING  PAGE 

A  twenty-acre  alfalfa  demonstration  on  J.  B.  Andrews' 

farm,  Roanoke  County,  Va.    The  yield  was  from  four 

and  one  half  to  five  tons  per  acre 18 

Deep  fall  plowing  (18  inches  deep)  in  south  Georgia  by 

modern  machinery 20 

Excellent  demonstration  in  cotton  and  corn,  Cullman 

County,  Ala.,  1911 22 

Typical  stalk  of  cotton  from  a  field  worked  under  old 

methods 24 

Demonstration  corn,  1910,  Thos.  Hitchcock  Farm, 

Aiken,  S.  C 28 

Demonstration  hay  in  South  Carolina,  yielding  5,000 

pounds  of  cured  hay  per  acre  in  1912 30 

Demonstration  in  oats,  Arkansas,  1911 30 

Demonstration  cotton  in  boll-weevil  infested  territory 

of  Louisiana 32 

A  contrast  between  demonstration  and  ordinary  meth- 
ods in  producing  cotton  in  North  Carolina  in  1910.  32 

Demonstration  peanuts  near  Comanche,  Okla.,  1912.  40 


viii  LIST  OF  HALF-TONES 

FACING  PAGE 

Kafir  corn,  as  one  of  the  surer  crops  for  the  semi-arid 

section  of  Oklahoma 40 

Field  meeting  on  demonstration  of  David  Johnson, 

Houlka,  Miss 42 

Agent  of  demonstration  work,  owner,  and  overseer  on 

the  Grinnan  Plantation 42 

Improved  farming  implements  being  explained  to  Negro 

farmers  by  colored  District  Demonstration  Agent  .  50 
A  field  of  prize  rye  grown  under  the  direction  of  colored 

Demonstration  Agent 50 

Annual  Farmers'  Conference,  Hampton  Institute,  1912 .  52 

Negro  demonstrator's  home  "Before  and  After"  .  .  54 

A  field  meeting  with  the  agents 56 

A  boy's  demonstration  crop  (1909) 56 

Field  meeting  of  a  boys'  club  in  Elbert  County,  Ga.  .  58 
Exhibit  of  corn  at  the  local  fair  at  Blackstone,  Va., 

1910 60 

Jerry  H.  Moore,  of  Winona,  S.  C.,  who  made  228^ 

bushels  of  corn  on  his  demonstration  acre .  ...  62 

A  club  member  and  her  well-tended  plant  full  of  fruit .  64 

A  Georgia  canning  club  demonstration  in  1912.  .  .  66 

A  canning  club  member's  plat  of  staked  tomatoes,  1912  68 
District  High  School,  Clendeik,.  Kanawha  County, 

W.  Va 84 

Public  High  School  Building,  Tupelo,  Miss  ....  84 

Clinton  Public  High  School,  Sampson  County,  N.  C. .  88 

Murphy  High  School,  Cherokee  County,  N.  C. .  .  .  88 

Marion,  S.  C.,  High  School 92 


LIST  OF  HALF-TONES  ix 

FACING  PAGE 

Paragould  High  School,  Ark 92 

Knoxville  City  High  School,  Tenn 94 

Young  High  School,  Knox  County,  used  as  a  model  for 

rural  high  schools  now  building  in  Tennessee ...  94 

New  Building,  District  High  School,  East  Bank,  W.  Va.  98 
New  District  Graded  and  High  School,  Princeton,  W. 

Va 98 

Old  Unity  School,  S.  C 186 

Unity  School,  S.  C.     Second  story  for  community  pur- 
poses added  to  a  modification  of  design  186 

A  Negro  Rural  School 190 

Queensland  Industrial  School,  Ben  Hill  County,  Ga.   .  190 
New  two-room  Notasulga  Schoolhouse,  Ala.,  pupils  and 

teacher 192 

Poplar  Lawn  School,  Va.,  "Before  and  After".      .      .  194 

Old  School,  Burkeville,  Va 196 

New  School,  three  rooms,  Burkeville,  Va 196 

Sewing  lesson  in  a  Gloucester  County  school,  Va.    .      .  200 

Northampton  County  exhibit,  Va 200 

Chair  caning  exhibit,  Henrico  County,  Va 202 

Specimens  of  manual  training  work  and  sewing  done  by 

Negro  school  children 202 

Boy  and  girl  in  their  garden  getting  instructions  from 

teacher 204 

A  prize  garden,  Caroline  County,  Va 204 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1 .  Distribution  of  work  between  U.  S.  Government 

and  General  Education  Board,  1908     ...       26 

2 .  Location  of  Agents  Farmers'  Cooperative  Demon- 

stration Work.     Crop  season  of  1909    ...       34 

3.  Blue  indicates  territory  in  which  Farm  Demon- 

stration Work  was  financed  by  G.  E.  B.     .      .       36 
Red  indicates  territory  in  which  Farm  Demon- 
stration Work  was  financed  by  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment      36 

4.  Location  of  Demonstration  Farms  in  Mississippi, 

i9°7 38 

5 .  Location  of  Demonstration  Farms  in  Mississippi, 

i9°8 39 

6.  Approximate  Location  of  Demonstration  Farms 

in  Mississippi,  1914 41 

7 .  Farm  Demonstration  in  the  State  of  Maine   .      .       43 

8 .  Farm  Demonstration  in  the  State  of  New  Hamp- 

shire  44 

9.  This  illustrates  how  the  farmers  of  a  county  are 

reached 47 

10.  Location  of  687  institutions  of  higher  learning 

which  confer  academic  degrees no 

11 .  Location  of  25  institutions  of  higher  learning  with 

annual  income  of  $500,000  and  upward .      .      .     112 


LIST  OF  MAPS  xi 

FIGURE  PAGE 

12 .  Location  of  85  institutions  of  higher  learning  with 

an  annual  income  of  $200,000  and  upward .      .      114 

13 .  Location  of  143  institutions  of  higher  learning  with 

an  annual  income  of  $100,000  and  upward.      .      115 

14 .  Location  of  234  institutions  of  higher  learning  with 

an  annual  income  of  $50,000  and  upward    .      .      117 

15.  Location  of  176  institutions  of  higher  learning 

which  confer  academic  degrees,  and  which  have 

less  than  $25,000  of  annual  income  118 

16.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in 

the  four  regular  college  classes  of  four  colleges.      120 

17.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in  the 
four  regular  college  classes  of  three  colleges .  .  122 

18.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in 

the  four  regular  classes  of  four  colleges.       .      .      123 

19.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in 

the  four  regular  college  classes  of  four  colleges     125 

20.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in 

the  four  regular  college  classes  of  three  colleges     126 

21.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in 
the  four  regular  college  classes  of  Amherst 
College 128 

22.  Map  showing  sections  from  which  Amherst  Col- 

lege derives  its  students 129 


xii  LIST  OF  MAPS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

23 .  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in 
the  four  regular  college  classes  of  Williams 
College 131 

24.  Map  showing  sections  from  which  Williams  Col- 

lege derives  its  students 132 

25.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in 
the  four  regular   college  classes  of  Harvard  . 
University 134 

26.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in  the 
four  regular  college  classes  of  Yale  University.  135 

27 .  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in  the 
four  regular  college  classes  of  Smith  College  .  137 

28.  Map  showing  sections  from  which  Smith  College 

derives  its  students •  .     138 

29.  Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming 

from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  enrolled  in  the 
four  regular  college  classes  of  Vassar  College  .  140 

30 .  Map  showing  sections  from  which  Vassar  College 

derives  its  students 141 

31 .  Location  of  103  institutions  of  higher  learning  to 

which  the  General  Education  Board  has  made 
appropriations 145 


OFFICERS  AND  MEMBERS 

OF  THE 

GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 


Chairman 


Secretary 

Assistant 
Secretaries 


Treasurer 

A  ssistant 
Treasurer 


OFFICERS 

WILLIAM  H.  BALDWIN,  JR. 
ROBERT  C.  OGDEN    . 
FREDERICK  T.  GATES     . 

WALLACE  BUTTRICK 

WILLIAM  H.  HECK  . 
EBEN  CHARLES  SAGE 
ABRAHAM  FLEXNER 

GEORGE  FOSTER  PEABODY 
Louis  G.  MYERS 

L.  M.  DASHIELL 

MEMBERS 


*  WILLIAM  H.  BALDWIN,  JR.  . 

*  JABEZ  L.  M.  CURRY 
FREDERICK  T.  GATES     . 

*  DANIEL  C.  GILMAN 

*  MORRIS  K.  JESUP     . 

*  ROBERT  C.  OGDEN    . 
WALTER  H.  PAGE     . 

*  Deceased. 


1905-1906 
1907- 

1902- 

1903-1905 
1905- 


1902-1909 
I9IO- 

1914- 


1902-1905 

1902-1903 

I9O2- 

1902-1908 

1902-1908 

1902-1913 

1902- 


xiv  MEMBERS 

f  GEORGE  FOSTER  PEABODY 1902-1912 

JOHN  D.  ROCKEFELLER,  JR 1902- 

ALBERT  SHAW 1902- 

WALLACE  BUTTRICK 1902- 

STARR  J.  MURPHY 1904- 

*  WILLIAM  R.  HARPER 1905-1906 

fHucHH.  HANNA 1905-1912 

f  E.  BENJAMIN  ANDREWS 1905-1912 

EDWIN  A.  ALDERMAN 1906- 

HOLLIS  B.  FRISSELL 1906- 

HARRY  PRATT  JUDSON 1906- 

CHARLES  W.  ELIOT 1908- 

ANDREW  CARNEGIE 1908- 

EDGAR  L.  MARSTON 1909- 

WICKLIFFE  ROSE 1910- 

JEROME  D.  GREENE 1912- 

ANSON  PHELPS  STOKES 1912- 

ABRAHAM  FLEXNER 1914- 

GEORGE  E.  VINCENT 1914- 

*  Deceased, 
t  Resigned 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

This  volume  gives  an  account  of  the  activities  of  the 
General  Education  Board  from  its  foundation  in  1902  up  to 
June  30,  1914.  The  Board  has  made  annual  reports  to  the 
United  States  Department  of  the  Interior  and  these  have 
been  regularly  printed  in  the  reports  of  the  Department; 
but  no  further  report  has  been  hitherto  issued,  because,  as 
the  Board's  work  was  felt  to  be  experimental  in  character, 
premature  statements  respecting  the  scope  and  outcome  of 
its  efforts  were  to  be  avoided.  After  something  more  than 
a  decade,  tangible  results  have  begun  to  appear,  and  to  their 
description  and  consideration  the  following  pages  are  devoted. 
Henceforth,  statements  will  be  issued  annually,  and,  from 
time  to  time,  a  more  critical  discussion  like  the  present  report 
will  be  published. 


THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 


The  General  Education  Board 

I.  HISTORY  OF  THE  GENERAL 
EDUCATION  BOARD 

THE  General  Education  Board,  founded  by  John 
D.  Rockefeller,  began  informally  when,  on  the 
evening  of  January  15,  1902,  a  few  of  those  who 
subsequently  became  its  members  met  for  the  purpose 
of  discussing  the  probable  scope  and  methods  of  an  edu- 
cational organization,  the  creation  of  which  Mr.  Rocke- 
feller was  then  contemplating.  At  a  second  meeting, 
held  in  the  following  month,  and  attended  by  Messrs. 
John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  F.  T.  Gates,  W.  H.  Baldwin,  Jr., 
J.  L.  M.  Curry,  Robert  C.  Ogden,  Daniel  C.  Gilman, 
Walter  H.  Page,  Albert  Shaw,  and  Wallace  Buttrick,1 
the  counsel,  Edward  M.  Shepard,  submitted  articles  of 
association  under  which  the  Board  began  its  pre- 
liminary operations.  Incorporation  by  Act  of  Congress 
took  place  January  12,  1903.  The  charter2  set  forth  the 
general  object  of  the  corporation  as  "the  promotion  of 
education  within  the  United  States  of  America,  without 
distinction  of  race,  sex,  or  creed";  and  this  broad  object 

'Mr.  Mcirris  K.  Jesup.  who  had  attended  the  first  meeting,  was  un- 
avoidably absent  from  the  second. 
2  Printed  in  full  in  Appendix  I,  pp.  212-215. 


4     THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

was  specifically  stated  to  include  the  power  to  establish 
or  endow  elementary  or  primary  schools,  industrial 
schools,  technical  schools,  normal  schools,  training  schools 
for  teachers,  or  schools  of  any  grade,  or  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning;  to  cooperate  with  associations  engaged 
in  educational  work;  to  donate  property  or  money  to  any 
such  association;  to  collect  educational  statistics  and 
information,  to  publish  and  distribute  documents  and 
reports,  "and  in  general  to  do  and  perform  all  things 
necessary  or  convenient  for  the  promotion  of  the  object 
of  the  corporation."  Under  the  authority  thus  conferred, 
the  entire  field  of  education  in  the  United  States — taking 
the  word  education  in  its  broadest  significance — is  open 
to  the  General  Education  Board.  The  Board  can  em- 
ploy its  resources  in  supplementing  the  income  of  estab- 
lished institutions  of  learning;  it  can  cooperate  with  state 
and  local  authorities  as  well  as  with  private  organiza- 
tions; it  can  undertake  educational  experimentation 
along  new  and  hitherto  untried  lines,  whether  at  the  pri- 
mary, academic,  technical,  industrial,  or  professional 
level;  it  can  conduct  educational  research  and  dissemi- 
nate educational  data. 

MEMBERSHIP 

The  membership  of  the  Board  has  from  the  outset 
been  selected  with  distinct  reference  to  the  varied  and 
weighty  responsibilities  involved.1  It  was  recognized 
that  the  feasibility  of  cooperation  between  private  and 

1  See  list  of  members,  xiii  and  xiv 


HISTORY  OF  THE  BOARD  5 

governmental  agencies  and  the  large  opportunity  open 
to  individual  initiative  in  dealing  with  social  and  educa- 
tional problems  are  among  the  distinct  advantages  of  a 
democratic  social  order.  But  the  usefulness  of  any  par- 
ticular effort  in  these  directions  must  depend  on  the 
wisdom  with  which  it  is  conducted — i.  e.,  on  the  com- 
petency and  disinterestedness  of  those  charged  with  its 
direction.  Where  a  high  order  of  capacity  and  experi- 
ence is  thus  enlisted,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  com- 
plete responsibility  to  professional  and  public  opinion 
is  joined  with  equally  complete  independence  of  personal, 
sectional,  or  institutional  interests.  Foreign  observers 
of  American  conditions  have  repeatedly  commented 
with  something  like  envy  on  the  comparative  ease  with 
which  large  sums  have  been  brought  into  fruitful  use 
under  a  form  of  supervision,  which  aims  to  bring  to- 
gether in  one  Board  both  the  lay  and  the  professional 
points  of  view,  and  to  represent  every  phase  of  social  and 
educational  concern.  The  devotion  of  private  fortunes 
to  public  ends  on  these  terms  is  highly  desirable;  and 
leaders  in  social  and  educational  endeavor  can  and  do 
render  intelligent  and  patriotic  service  by  participation 
in  these  characteristically  American  enterprises.1 

RANGE   OF   ACTIVITIES 

The  creation  of  the  General  Education  Board  marked 
the  coming  together  and  expansion  of  two  distinct  lines  of 
interest  and  activity. 

1  For  a  fuller  consideration  of  these  points,  see  pp.  105-100;  80-82. 


6     THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

(a)  Higher  Education 

Prior  to  1902  Mr.  Rockefeller  had  confined  his  educa- 
tional benefactions  mainly  to  such  institutions  as  were 
conducted  under  the  auspices  of  his  own  religious  de- 
nomination. For  this  purpose  he  had  acted  through 
the  American  Baptist  Education  Society,  an  organiza- 
tion which  fostered  academies,  colleges,  and  theological 
seminaries  under  Baptist  auspices  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  institutions  thus  assisted  form, 
in  the  main,  the  contribution  of  the  Baptist  denomination 
to  the  general  educational  resources  of  the  nation.  In 
this  spirit  the  Society  had  in  1889  determined  on  the 
establishment  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  a  decision 
the  fulfilment  of  which,  on  the  broad  lines  laid  down  at 
the  outset,  was  subsequently  realized  chiefly  through 
Mr.  Rockefeller's  gifts. l  The  Baptist  Education  Society 
aided  only  institutions  which  were  affiliated  with  its  own 
denomination,  and  of  these,  such  only  as  gave  promise 
of  permanent  and  increasing  usefulness.  A  plan  of  edu- 
cation under  Baptist  auspices  had  been  somewhat  care- 
fully elaborated,  which  was  designed  to  furnish  the 
Baptist  denomination  of  the  United  States  with  a 
comprehensive  and  orderly  system  of  colleges  and 
academies.  For  a  decade  or  more  the  Society  wrought 


1  See  "  Address  on  the  Proposed  Institution  of  Learning  at  Chicago,"  by 
Mr.  Frederick  T.  Gates,  the  Corresponding  Secretary,  in  report  of  First 
Annual  Meeting  of  the  American  Baptist  Education  Society,  May  18, 
1889.  Mr.  Rockefeller's  gifts  to  the  University  of  Chicago  total 

$34,702,375.28. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  BOARD  7 

with  diligence  and  success  toward  the  realization  of 
this  denominational  system  of  education,  Mr.  Rocke- 
feller being  the  chief  benefactor.  But  as  Mr.  Rocke- 
feller's fortune  increased,  his  interest  in  education 
broadened,  and  with  it  a  sense  of  public  duty  and  respon- 
sibility which  transcended  alike  denominational,  sectional, 
and  racial  lines.  To  provide  an  agency  through  which 
the  broadest  possible  interest  in  education  throughout 
the  land  could  find  a  fitting  expression,  the  General 
Education  Board,  long  existing  as  an  ideal  in  his  office, 
finally  came  into  being.  Without  limitation  the  funds 
of  the  General  Education  Board  were  to  be  distributed 
to  institutions  of  any  denomination  or  no  denomination. 
Moreover,  the  scope  of  the  Board  was  designed  to 
include  activities  with  which  the  Baptist  Society  had 
not  undertaken  to  deal.  Nevertheless,  the  historic  re- 
lationship between  the  two  organizations  is  clear.  The 
General  Education  Board  is,  on  this  side,  an  outgrowth 
of  the  Baptist  Education  Society.  The  Board  adopted 
the  main  principles  and  practices  of  the  Baptist  So- 
ciety and  extended  them,  dropping  the  denominational 
and  other  limitations.  It  took  over  the  conception  of  a 
system  of  higher  education,  comprehensive,  mutually 
related,  and  supplemental  in  its  parts,  so  expanded, 
however,  as  to  cover  institutions  with  and  without 
denominational  connections.1  The  Board  adopted,  too 
the  manner  in  which  the  Baptist  Society  had  made 

'This  point  will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  connection  with  the  con- 
tributions of  the  Board  to  universities  and  colleges,  pp.  108- j  12. 


8     THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

its  contributions,  and  even  the  precise  form  of  pledge 
that  had  been  employed.1 

(b)  Education  in  the  South 

Vigorous  interest  in  the  industrial  and  educational 
upbuilding  of  the  South  represented  the  second  of  the  two 
lines  of  activity  which  merged  in  the  General  Education 
Board.  The  Southern  states  were  making  unprece- 
dented efforts  toward  their  own  educational  rehabilita- 
tion. In  these  efforts  valuable  assistance  had  already 
been  rendered  by  several  private  foundations  and  organ- 
izations created  for  the  express  purpose  of  cooperating 
with  the  Southern  people.  The  most  prominent  of  these 
bodies  were  the  Peabody  Education  Fund,  the  Trustees 
of  the  Slater  Fund,  and  the  Southern  Education  Board. 
They  were  all  non-official  in  character  and  either  endowed 
or  entirely  supported  by  private  funds.  Neither  they  nor 
the  General  Education  Board  ever  possessed  or  sought 
authority;  they  have  simply  had  such  influence  as  has 
resulted  from  public  confidence  in  their  disinterested 
devotion,  sympathy,  and  intelligence.  More  flexible 
than  governmental  bureaus,  less  restricted  in  their  choice 
of  agents  and  advisers,  more  continuous  in  policy,  these 
organizations  have  for  years  devoted  themselves  to 
furthering  educational  plans  which  represent  the  con- 
sensus of  the  best  judgment  obtainable.  So  important 
has  been  the  part  played  by  these  bodies  in  the  upbuilding 

irrhis  is  explained  fully  in  the  section  devoted  to  colleges  and  univer- 
sities, pp.  144-147. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  BOARD  9 

of  Southern  education  since  the  war,  and  so  intimate 
their  relationship  with  the  General  Education  Board, 
that  a  word  may  fitly  be  said  of  them  in  this  connection. 

THE   PEABODY  EDUCATION  FUND 

The  Peabody  Education  Fund — something  above 
$2,000,000 — was  established,  shortly  after  the  close  of 
the  war,  by  George  Peabody,  a  native  of  Massachusetts, 
who  subsequently  became  a  London  banker.  The  Fund 
was  designed  for  the  promotion  of  popular  education  in 
the  Southern  states  through  cooperation  with  state 
and  local  officials.  Subject  to  a  representative  body  of 
trustees,  three  general  agents  were  successively  engaged 
in  this  work:  Dr.  Barnas  Sears,  sometime  president  of 
Brown  University,  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry  of  Virginia,  and 
Dr.  Wickliffe  Rose  of  Tennessee.  The  Peabody  Board, 
through  its  general  agents,  assisted  the  educational  lead- 
ers of  the  several  states  in  creating  sentiment  and  pro- 
curing legislation  favorable  to  popular  education;  it 
aided  in  the  establishment  of  public  schools  in  cities  and 
towns,  and  in  the  development  of  state  normal  schools, 
in  the  support  of  Hampton  Institute,  Tuskegee  Institute, 
and  other  private  schools  for  Negroes,  and  finally  con- 
tributed the  bulk  of  its  capital  ($1,500,000)  to  the  new 
George  Peabody  College  for  Teachers,  affiliated  with 
Vanderbilt  University  at  Nashville.  In  combining 
private  and  unofficial  with  public  and  official  endeavor, 
the  George  Peabody  Fund  was  the  pioneer  educational 
foundation.  Its  general  agents  were  often  invited  to 


io     THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

address  joint  sessions  of  the  legislatures  of  the  several 
Southern  states;  and  its  efforts  were  repeatedly  recog- 
nized in  legislative  enactments.  An  Alabama  statute, 
for  example,  provided  that  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Education  should  hold  teachers'  institutes  every  summer 
in  each  congressional  district  and  authorized  him  to  ex- 
pend in  each  district  "not  to  exceed  $500,  the  amount  not 
in  any  case  to  exceed  the  amount  paid  for  such  purpose 
by  the  trustees  of  the  Peabody  Education  Fund."  The 
history  of  this  endowment  indicates  the  lines  on  which 
cooperation  between  unofficial  and  official  agencies  may 
be  effectively  carried  on. 

THE    JOHN   F.    SLATER   FUND 

The  Slater  Fund,  originally  $1,000,000,  but  well-nigh 
doubled  by  wise  management,  was  left  by  the  late  John 
F.  Slater,  a  manufacturer  of  Norwich,  Connecticut.  Its 
purpose  was  the  development  of  educational  facilities 
for  the  Negro.  Bishop  Haygood,  sometime  president 
of  Emory  College,  Georgia,  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  Dr.  Wal- 
lace Buttrick,  and  Dr.  James  H.  Dillard  of  New  Orleans, 
Louisiana,  served  in  succession  as  general  agent.  The 
Fund  contributed  from  its  income  to  the  support  of  normal 
schools,  denominational  schools,  and  many  town  schools 
for  Negroes.  It  was  of  material  aid  in  developing  the 
Trade  Schools  at  Hampton  and  Tuskegee,  the  Hospital 
and  Teacher  TrainingDepartmentsat  Spelman  Seminary, 
the  industrial  work  at  Claflin  University,  and  many  other 
institutions.  Throughout  its  history  special  emphasis 


HISTORY  OF  THE  BOARD  n 

has  been  laid  on  the  training  of  the  hands  and  on  what  is 
now  popularly  known  as  vocational  education.  Under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Dillard,  the  present  general  agent, 
the  attention  of  the  Board  is  more  and  more  being  con- 
centrated on  the  rural  schools.1 

THE  SOUTHERN  EDUCATION  BOARD 

The  Southern  Education  Board,  organized  by  the 
late  Robert  C.  Ogden,  was  an  outgrowrth  of  the  Annual 
Conference  for  Education  in  the  South.  The  object 
of  both  these  organizations  will  be  more  definitely  stated 
when  rural  educational  conditions  are  described.2  They 
must,  however,  be  mentioned  at  this  point  because  the 
propaganda  in  behalf  of  popular  education  in  the  South 
carried  on  by  them  was  a  factor  in  crystallizing  Mr. 
Rockefeller's  already  profound  interest  in  this  particular 
problem  on  the  establishment  of  the  General  Education 
Board. 

The  organizations  above  described  were  either  limited 

1  Two  additional  funds  have  been  created  in  recent  years  for  the  benefit 
of  Negro  education:  the  Anna  T.  Jeanes  Fund  for  Negro  Rural  Schools, 
and  the  Phelps-Stokes  Fund.     Miss  Jeanes,  a  native  of  Pennsylvania, 
after  giving  $200,000  in  trust  to  the  General  Education  Board  (see  p.  202), 
the  income  to  be  expended  on  Negro  rural  schools,  gave  $1,000,000  to  a 
Board  organized  at  her  request  by  Dr.  H.  B.  Frissell  and  Dr.  Booker  T. 
Washington.     Dr.  Dillard  is  president  of  the  Board  and  director  of  the 
Fund,  which  is  now  utilized  to  maintain  county  supervising  industrial 
teachers,  cooperating  with  the  public  school  authorities.     See  pp.  196-8. 

The  Phelps-Stokes  Fund,  approximately  $1,000,000,  left  by  Miss 
Caroline  Phelps  Stokes  to  a  Board  of  Trustees,  is  now  supporting  out  of 
its  income  a  study  of  leading  Negro  schools  and  colleges,  and  certain  fel- 
lowships at  the  University  of  Georgia  and  the  University  of  Virginia  for 
the  study  of  the  Negro  problem. 

2  See  pp.  179-180. 


12    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

in  point  of  duration,  like  the  Peabody  Fund,  or  lacked 
permanent  endowment,  like  the  Southern  Education 
Board.  It  was  obvious,  therefore,  that  there  was  room  for 
still  another  type  of  institution — an  institution  perma- 
nent in  character,  and  with  an  assured  income,  devoted 
in  part,  at  least,  to  cooperation  with  the  Southern  people 
in  the  development  of  a  comprehensive  educational 
policy.  For  some  years  previous  to  the  organization  of 
the  General  Education  Board,  Mr.  Rockefeller's  atten- 
tion had  been  directed  to  the  needs  of  the  people  of  the 
South,  both  white  and  colored,  and  particularly  to  the 
existing  conditions  in  respect  to  elementary  education. 
Its  charter  was  so  drawn  as  to  enable  the  General  Edu- 
cation Board  to  enter  this  field.  While  the  precise  part 
to  be  undertaken  was  not  defined  in  advance,  Mr.  Rocke- 
feller, in  making  his  first  gift  to  the  Board,  called  at- 
tention to  the  educational  needs  of  the  people  of  the 
Southern  states  and  indicated  his  special  interest  therein. 

EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  SOUTH 

Accordingly,  the  Board,  through  its  Secretary,  as- 
sisted by  several  field  agents,  at  once  set  to  work  to 
acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  conditions  in  the  South- 
ern states.  To  use  the  phrase  now  current,  surveys  were 
planned,  state  by  state.  In  the  fall  of  1902  a  conference 
of  the  County  Superintendents  of  Georgia  was  held  at 
the  State  University  at  Athens.  Among  the  questions 
informally  discussed  were  finance,  supervision,  school 
consolidation,  Negro  education,  etc.  Similar  confer- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  BOARD  13 

ences  in  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  Florida,  and  other  states 
followed.  Subsequently,  detailed  field  studies  were  made 
and  separate  state  monographs  prepared,  dealing  with 
the  organization  of  the  public  school  system,  its  finances, 
the  number  and  character  of  school  buildings,  the  num- 
ber, training,  and  pay  of  public  school  teachers,  private 
and  public  secondary  schools,  institutions  for  the  higher 
education  of  women,  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers, 
and  schools,  public  and  private,  for  the  education  of 
Negroes. 

These  monographs  were  distributed  to  members  of  the 
General  Education  Board  and  were  kept  on  file  in  the 
oflice  of  the  Board.  They  were  not  published,  because  no 
good  purpose  was  at  that  time  to  be  subserved  thereby. 
However,  in  little  more  than  the  decade  that  has  passed 
since  that  time,  the  general  educational  situation  in 
the  Southern  states  has  been  so  largely  transformed 
that  the  facts  contained  in  these  documents  now  possess 
considerable  historic  interest.  In  subsequent  pages  they 
will  be  utilized  by  way  of  showing  the  rapid  improve- 
ments that  have  taken  place. 1 

POLICY  OF  THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

But  the  studies  just  referred  to  did  more  than  supply 
facts.  For  out  of  them  a  conclusion  of  far-reaching 
importance  soon  emerged.  They  convinced  the  Board 
that  no  fund,  however  large,  could,  by  direct  gifts,  con- 
tribute a  system  of  public  schools;  that  even  if  it  were 

'See  pp.  72-77;  181-184. 


14    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

possible  to  develop  a  system  of  public  schools  by  private 
gifts,  it  would  be  a  positive  disservice.  The  best  thing 
in  connection  with  public  school  education  is  the  doing 
of  it.  The  public  school  must  represent  community 
ideals,  community  initiative,  and  community  support, 
even  to  the  point  of  sacrifice.  The  General  Education 
Board  could  be  helpful  only  by  respecting  this  funda- 
mental truth.  It  therefore  felt  its  way  cautiously,  con- 
scious of  the  difficulty,  complexity,  and  delicacy  of  the 
situation.  It  hoped  to  aid,  not  by  foisting  upon  the 
South  a  program  from  outside,  but  by  cooperating  with 
Southern  leaders  in  sympathetically  working  out  a  pro 
gram  framed  by  them  on  the  basis  of  local  conditions  and 
local  considerations.  The  several  steps  taken  in  con- 
sequence of  this  attitude  will  be  described  in  detail  in 
this  volume.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  Board  has 
scrupulously  maintained  the  position  above  defined: 
it  has  cooperated,  not  interfered.  The  lines  on  which 
cooperation  could  profitably  take  place  have  been  ar- 
rived at  as  the  result  of  conference  between  national, 
state,  and  local  authorities,  competent  unofficial  ob- 
servers, and  the  officers  and  members  of  the  General 
Education  Board.  The  experience  of  over  a  decade  has 
conclusively  proved  that  on  this  basis  endowed  agencies 
can  perform  valuable  public  service  in  a  democracy. 


II.  RESOURCES  AND  EXPENDITURES 

PENDING    the  steps  necessary  to  incorporation, 
Mr.  Rockefeller  in  1902  gave  $1,000,000  to  the 
General  Education  Board.      In  making  his  in- 
itial gift,1  Mr  Rockefeller  referred  to  the  fact  that  he 
understood  it  to  be  the  immediate  intention  of  the  Board 
to  devote  itself  to  studying  the  needs  and  aiding  to 
promote  the  educational  interests  of  the  people  of  the 
Southern  states      It  was  stipulated  that  the  principal 
be  used  in  the  Southern  states  and  that  it  be  expended 
during  a  period  of  ten  years. 

GIFTS   TO   ENDOWMENT 

The  first  permanent  endowment,  received  June  30, 
1905,  and  amounting  to  $10,000,000,  was  expressly  de- 
signed to  furnish  an  income  "to  be  distributed  to,  or 
used  for  the  benefit  of,  such  institutions  of  learning,  at 
such  times,  in  such  amounts,  for  such  purposes,  and  under 
such  conditions,  or  employed  in  such  other  ways  as 
the  Board  may  deem  best  adapted  to  promote  a  compre- 
hensive system  of  higher  education  in  the  United  States. "- 

1  Mr.  Rockefeller's  letters  announcing  his  gifts  to  the  General  Education 
Board,  with  the  letters  of  the  Board  in  reply,  are  given  in  full  in  Appendix 
II,  pp.  216-223. 

2  The  limitations  on  the  use  of  this  gift  were  subsequently  removed. 


1 6    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

In  February,  1907,  a  further  gift  of  $32,000,000  was 
made,  "one  third  to  be  added  to  the  permanent  endow- 
ment of  the  Board;  two  thirds  to  be  applied  to  such 
specific  objects  within  the  corporate  purposes  of  the 
Board"  as  Mr.  Rockefeller  or  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller, 
Jr.,  might  direct,  "the  remainder  not  so  designated,  at  the 
death  of  the  survivor,  to  be  added  to  the  permanent  en- 
dowment of  the  Board."1  This  addition  to  endowment 
was  accompanied  by  no  restriction  whatsoever  as  to  the 
specific  educational  objects  to  which  its  income  was  to 
be  devoted. 

On  July  7,  1909,  Mr.  Rockefeller  increased  his  bene- 
factions by  the  gift  of  an  additional  $10,000,000,  at  the 
same  time  authorizing  and  empowering  the  Board,  in  its 
discretion,  to  distribute  its  entire  principal  or  any  .part 
thereof,  and  releasing  the  Board  from  the  obligation  to 
hold  his  gifts  in  perpetuity.  Besides  the  sums  above 
specified  as  contributed  by  Mr.  Rockefeller,  the  Board  re- 
ceived, April  17,  1905,  the  sum  of  $200,000  from  Miss 
Anna  T.  Jeanes  for  the  "assistance  of  the  Negro  rural 
schools  in  the  South."2 

At  the  present  time  the  Board's  resources  are  valued  at 
$33,939,156.89,  of  which  $30,918,063.80  is  general  endow- 
ment and  $3,021,093.09  reserve  fund.  The  gross  income 

1  Out  of  the  sum  thus  subject  to  distribution,  and  its  accrued  income,  the 
following  gifts  have  been  made: 

(a)  To  the  University  of  Chicago $13,554,343.99 

(b)  To  the  Rockefeller  Institute  for  Medical  Research  .       10,267,022 . 10 

(c)  To  the  General  Education  Board 1,239,830.38 

*  See  pp.  223.  $25,061,196.47 


RESOURCES  AND  EXPENDITURES  17 

from  these  funds  for  the  year  1913-14  was  $2,417,079.62. 
In  addition  the  Anna  T.  Jeanes  Fund  of  $200,000  yielded 
a  gross  income  of  $9,231.64. 

APPROPRIATIONS 

In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  its  charter,  the  Board 
has  initiated  several  distinct,  though  related,  lines  of 
activity  which  will  be  described  in  this  volume.  Its 
appropriations  up  to  June  30,  1914,  have  been  as  follows: 

Colleges  and  Universities $10,582,591.80 

Medical  Schools 2,670,874.11 

Negro  Colleges  and  Schools 699,781.13 

Miscellaneous  Schools 159,991.02 

Professors  of  Secondary  Education    .      .      .  242,861.09 

Southern  Education  Board 97,126.23 

Rural  School  Agents  (both  races)      .      .      .  104,443.18 
Farm    Demonstration    Work — South    (in- 
cluding Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs)     .      .      .  925,750.00 
Farm   Demonstration   Work — Maine    and 
New    Hampshire    (including   Boys'   and 

Girls'  Clubs) 50,876.45 

Rural  Organization  Service 37,166.66 

Educational  Conferences 18,108.23 

Administrative  Expenses        304,794.99 

Total $15,894,364.89 


III.  FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS 

IT  WILL  be  remembered  that  Mr.  Rockefeller's  first 
gift  to  the  General  Education  Board  was  designed  to 
support  an  inquiry  into  the  educational  needs  of  the 
Southern  people.  To  the  officers  and  members  of  the 
Board  who  visited  the  South  for  personal  study,  it  soon 
became  clear  that  more  favorable  economic  conditions 
must  be  attained  before  comprehensive  school  systems 
could  be  supported  by  taxation.  The  Southern  people 
were  not  educationally  apathetic;  on  the  contrary,  popu- 
lar education,  unknown  to  the  antebellum  regime, 
had  come  to  be  an  object  of  ardent  desire  in  the  three 
decades  that  had  passed  between  1870  and  1900;  sig- 
nificant steps  had  already  been  taken  in  many  states,  and 
generous  private  subscriptions  were  being  added  to  public 
taxation.  But  adequate  developments  could  not  take 
place  until  the  available  resources  of  the  people  were 
greatly  enlarged.  School  systems  could  not  be  given  to 
them,  and  they  were  not  prosperous  enough  to  support 
them.  Such  was  the  situation  reduced  to  its  simplest 
terms. 

EDUCATIONAL   CONDITIONS   IN   THE    SOUTH 

A  few  of  the  facts  gathered  at  the  time  by  the  Board  will 
make  this  point  clear.     The  state  school  fund  of  Alabama 

18 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  19 

for  the  year  ending  September  30, 1903,  was  $1,167, 887. go; 
in  Georgia,  the  total  from  both  state  and  local  sources 
was  somewhat  less;  the  total  net  disbursements  of  Missis- 
sippi that  year  were  a  little  less  than  $1,900,000;  in  Ten- 
nessee, expenditures  were  slightly  in  excess  of  $2,600,000. 
The  remaining  Southern  states  did  not  vary  materially 
from  the  examples  cited.  These  sums  were  obviously 
inadequate  to  their  purposes.  In  some  states  they  in- 
cluded amounts  raised  by  local  taxation;  but  in  general, 
local  levies  were  either  impossible  or  were  confined  by 
statute  to  very  narrow  limits. 

The  real  difficulty  became  strikingly  apparent  when 
the  details  essential  to  the  organization  and  conduct  of  a 
school  system  were  examined.  Salaries  were  uniformly 
low  and  clerical  assistance  extremely  meagre.  The  State 
Superintendent  of  Alabama  was  paid  $2,500  annually, 
with  a  total  allowance  for  clerks  of  $4,400;  in  North 
Carolina,  $2,000  and  $2,500  respectively  were  appropri- 
ated; in  South  Carolina,  $1,900  and  $900;  in  Tennessee, 
$2,000  and  $1.920.  Georgia  prescribed  no  qualifications 
for  its  State  "Commissioner  of  Education";  in  Mississippi, 
only  an  age  qualification  existed;  Tennessee  made  a 
vague  professional  requirement;  Virginia  specified  in 
general  terms  "an  experienced  educator." 

Matters  were  even  less  satisfactory  in  respect  to  the 
county  superintendency.  The  average  salary  of  these 
officers  in  Alabama  in  1902  was  $575  a  year;  in  Louisi- 
ana, $482;  in  Virginia,  $399.75.  Clearly  the  county  su- 
perintendent could  not  as  a  rule  devote  himself  wholly  to 


20    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

his  educational  duties,  and  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that 
the  post  would  usually  be  filled  by  specially  trained  men. 

At  this  same  period  the  white  teachers  of  Alabama 
were  receiving  average  annual  salaries  of  $151.84;  col- 
ored teachers,  $95.53;  in  South  Carolina,  $195.28  and 
$79.47  respectively;  in  Louisiana,  white  and  colored 
together,  $254.  The  average  throughout  the  United 
States  was  at  this  time  $516.  The  per  capita  expenditure 
on  school  children  ranged  from  $3.38  in  North  Carolina 
to  $7.43  in  Louisiana,  while  in  the  country  at  large  it 
stood  at  $15.08.  In  Georgia,  the  county  school  term 
averaged  5.2  months;  in  Mississippi,  a  four-months'  term 
was  required  by  statute;  in  Tennessee,  the  county  term 
varied  from  fifty-five  days  in  Claiborne  County  to  one 
hundred  and  forty-five  in  Bedford;  the  statutory  require- 
ment in  Virginia  was  a  term  of  five  months  or  TOO  days.1 

Under  these  circumstances  the  entire  organization 
was  necessarily  inefficient  and  unsatisfactory.  The  sal- 
aries were  too  low  to  support  a  teaching  profession  and 
the  terms  too  brief  to  engage  the  time  and  energy  of  the 
teacher;  competent  professional  training  could  not  ex- 
ist, satisfactory  equipment  could  not  be  provided,  and,  if 
provided,  could  not  be  utilized.  A  well-organized  state 
system,  conducted  by  properly  qualified  officials  effi- 
ciently supervising  comfortable  schools  in  charge  of 
trained  teachers  during  a  term  of  sufficient  length,  did  not 
a  decade  ago  exist  in  any  Southern  state. 

1A\\  the  illustrations  here  given  are  taken  from  the  surveys  above 
mentioned. 


21 


UNFAVORABLE    ECONOMIC   CONDITIONS 

But,  as  has  already  been  stated,  these  conditions  were 
not  primarily  due  to  any  lack  of  interest  in  popular  edu- 
cation. They  were  mainly  the  result  of  rural  poverty. 
While  the  average  annual  earnings  of  individuals  en- 
gaged in  agriculture  in  the  State  of  Iowa  were  upward 
of  $1,000,  the  average  earnings  of  those  similarly  engaged 
in  some  of  the  Southern  states  were  as  low  as  $150. 
Nor  were  these  meagre  agricultural  incomes  supple- 
mented by  disproportionately  large  returns  from  mines  or 
manufactures.  Eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the  Southern 
population  was  rural  in  character.  Trade  did  not  there- 
fore supply  what  the  farm  failed  to  produce.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  people  of  the  Southern  states  was  simply  not 
earning  enough  to  provide  proper  homes  and  to  support 
good  schools.  Whatever  the  other  deficiencies,  the 
prime  need  was  money. 

It  was  obvious  that  the  General  Education  Board  could 
render  no  substantial  educational  service  to  the  South 
until  the  farmers  of  the  South  could  provide  themselves 
with  larger  incomes.  The  resources  of  the  soil  were 
ample  or  would  become  so  under  scientific  cultivation; 
the  climate  was  highly  favorable  to  general  rural  pros- 
perity. But  the  Southern  farmer  suffered  from  lack  of 
scientific  knowledge  of  agriculture,  knowledge  available, 
indeed,  though  never  effectually  distributed  to  the 
people.  It  was  necessary  to  improve  Southern  agricul- 
ture. How  could  this  be  done? 


22    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

The  Board  was  advised  to  address  itself  to  the  rising 
generation — that  is,  to  support  the  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture in  the  common  schools.  After  thoughtful  consid- 
eration this  plan  was  rejected.  In  the  absence  of  trained 
teachers,  the  effort  was  impracticable;  moreover,  there 
were  no  funds  with  which  to  pay  such  teachers,  and  the 
instruction  itself  would  not  materially  contribute  to  its 
own  support.  Finally,  it  was  impossible  to  force  intelli- 
gent agricultural  instruction  upon  schools  whose  patrons 
were  not  themselves  alive  to  the  deficiencies  of  their  own 
agricultural  methods.  Until  the  public  was  convinced 
of  the  feasibility  of  superior  and  more  productive  meth- 
ods, the  public  schools  could  not  be  reconstructed;  once 
the  public  was  convinced,  and  by  reason  thereof  better 
able  to  stand  the  increased  cost,  the  schools  would  natu- 
rally and  inevitably  readjust  themselves. 

It  was  therefore  deliberately  decided  to  undertake  the 
agricultural  education  not  of  the  future  farmer,  but  of  the 
present  farmer,  on  the  theory  that,  if  he  could  be  sub- 
stantially helped,  he  would  gladly  support  better  schools 
in  more  and  more  liberal  fashion.  The  Board,  therefore, 
set  about  an  extensive  inquiry  as  to  the  best  means  of 
conveying  to  the  average  working  farmer  of  the  South,  in 
his  manhood,  the  most  efficient  known  methods  of  intelli- 
gent farming. 

ORIGIN   OF   THE   FARM  DEMONSTRATION 

The  extension  of  the  so-called  Cooperative  Farm 
Demonstration  movement  resulted  from  this  investiga- 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  23 

tion.  The  story  of  its  inception  and  expansion  is  not 
without  strong  human  interest.  In  the  first  place,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Board  spent  almost  a  year  under  its 
authorization  in  seeking  to  discover  the  most  effective 
methods  of  teaching  improved  agricultural  methods 
to  adult  farmers.  Agricultural  schools  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada  were  studied:  the 
MacDonald  College  at  St.  Anne,  Quebec;  the  Agricultural 
College  of  Ontario  at  Guelph;  the  agricultural  colleges 
of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Texas.  By  a  fortunate  coin- 
cidence Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp  chanced  at  this  time  to  be 
lecturing  on  the  farm  demonstration  method  at  the  last- 
named  institution. 

The  Mexican  cotton  boll  weevil  was  just  beginning  its 
devastations.  As  the  pest  spread,  a  panic  had  taken 
place  in  Texas.  Cotton  was  the  principal  crop,  and  the 
days  of  its  profitable  cultivation  seemed  to  be  numbered. 
Farms  were  abandoned  and  counties  well-nigh  depopu- 
lated. Acting  for  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Dr.  Knapp  in  1903  established  a  community 
demonstration  farm  at  Terrell,  Texas,  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  farmers  how  cotton  could  be  raised  despite  the 
boll  weevil,  with  such  success,  indeed,  that,  from  one 
point  of  view,  the  boll-weevil  curse  proved  a  sort  of  bless- 
ing in  disguise.  By  means  of  the  improved  methods 
employed  by  Dr.  Knapp,  the  production  of  cotton  was 
actually  increased  and  normal  business  conditions  were 
accordingly  restored.  If  the  demonstration  method  paid 
in  dealing  with  a  pest-ridden  farm,  was  there  not  every 


24    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

reason  to  suppose  that  it  would  pay  still  more  hand- 
somely where  no  handicap  at  all  existed?  In  Dr.  Knapp's 
farm  demonstration  work,  limited  at  that  time  to  com- 
bating the  boll  weevil,  the  General  Education  Board 
found  the  answer  to  its  search  for  a  method  of  delivering 
the  existing  knowledge  of  effective  agricultural  processes 
to  present  farmers. 

Shortly  afterward,  the  executive  officers  of  the  General 
Education  Board — the  Chairman  and  the  Secretary- 
met  Dr.  Knapp  in  Washington  in  a  series  of  conferences. 
Dr.  Knapp's  varied  agricultural  activities  and  experience 
were  thoroughly  discussed — particularly  the  history  and 
outcome  of  his  efforts  in  farm  demonstration.  The 
feasibility  of  extending  the  method  as  an  educational 
measure  was  considered — the  cost  of  such  extension, 
the  probability  of  its  ultimately  supporting  itself,  the 
length  of  time  which  must  probably  elapse  before  any 
such  result  could  be  counted  on.  It  was  agreed  that  the 
work  would  permanently  affect  Southern  agricultural 
prosperity  only  if  it  became  vitally  rooted;  that,  there- 
fore, an  outside  agency  engaged  in  its  promotion  must 
regard  its  part  as  temporary  and  experimental.  Dr. 
Knapp  was  from  the  outset  confident  that  experience 
would  justify  this  view.  He  believed  that  if  the 
demonstration  work  could  once  be  started  by  outside 
funds  in  a  state,  a  county,  or  a  community,  it  would 
promptly  enlist  local  support;  that  it  would  spread 
from  community  to  community  and  from  state  to  state; 
and  that  in  the  end  the  teaching  of  agriculture  and 


Typical  stalk  of  cotton  from  a  field  worked  under  old  methods.     Note: 
The  weevils  have  stripped  it  of  all  but  one  boll. 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  25 

domestic  arts  would  become  an  accepted  feature  of  rural 
education. 

The  program  above  sketched  could  not,  however,  be 
carried  out  by  the  Federal  Government,  because,  at  that 
time,  it  was  held  that  government  funds  could  be  spent 
only  for  interstate  purposes.  Following  the  success 
of  the  experimental  demonstration  at  Terrell,  Texas, 
Congress  had  made  special  appropriations  for  the  purpose 
of  combating  the  boll  weevil,  and  cotton  culture  farms 
were  established  by  Dr.  Knapp  throughout  the  infested 
region ;  but,  as  the  appropriation  was  based  on  the  theory 
that  the  weevil  was  an  interstate  menace  and,  only  as 
such,  a  legitimate  object  of  Federal  concern,  the  money 
was  not  available  for  strictly  educational  uses.  The 
cooperation  of  the  General  Education  Board  made  the 
educational  application  of  the  idea  possible.  While 
still  retaining  his  connection  with  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Dr.  Knapp  readily  accepted  an  offer  made 
by  the  Board  to  finance  the  educational  extension  of 
farm  demonstrations,  entering  into  the  scheme  with  all 
the  vigor  and  enthusiasm  of  youth.  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  became  a  party  to  the  neces- 
sary arrangements.  An  agreement,  signed  April  20. 
1906,  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  the  Secretary 
of  the  General  Education  Board,  provided  that  "The 
farmers'  cooperative  work,  in  which  the  General  Educa- 
tion Board  is  to  become  interested,  shall  be  entirely  dis- 
tinct in  territory  and  finance  from  that  carried  on  solely 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  "  and  that "  the  United 


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FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  27 

States  Department  of  Agriculture  shall  have  supervision 
of  the  work  and  shall  appoint  all  special  agents  for  this 
extended  territory  in  the  same  way  that  they  are  now 
appointed,  and  the  said  agents  shall  be  under  control 
of  said  department  in  every  respect  as  fully  as  any  of 
the  agents  of  the  department."  Henceforth  agricultural 
demonstrations  in  weevil-infected  states  were  conducted 
with  government  funds;  agricultural  demonstrations  in 
non-infected  states  were  supported  by  the  General  Edu- 
cation Board;  control  of  both  being  lodged  in  the  Federal 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

A  FARM   DEMONSTRATION 

Dr.  Knapp's  procedure  was  the  very  essence  of  sim- 
plicity. He  knew  that  through  seed  selection  and  inten- 
sive farming  the  prouuctivity  of  lands  could  be  immensely 
augmented;  in  a  word,  more  could  be  gained  through  in- 
telligence than  was  lost  through  the  weevil.  In  every 
afflicted  vicinity  Dr.  Knapp  undertook  to  propagate  his 
methods  by  actual  "demonstration"  of  their  value. 
Selecting  a  relatively  capable  farmer  in  a  given  neigh- 
borhood, Dr.  Knapp  induced  him  to  plant  and  cultivate 
a  certain  amount  of  land  in  a  certain  way,  with  a  certain 
kind  of  seed;  he  relied  on  the  natural  imitative  instinct 
to  induce  others  to  follow  when  once  the  result  called  at- 
tention to  the  superiority  of  the  process.  His  bearing 
in  the  field  was  characteristic  and  inimitable.  Approach- 
ing the  farmer  whom  he  desired  to  interest,  he  carried 
on  a  dialogue  somewhat  in  this  fashion : 


28    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

"I  have  a  cotton  seed,"  he  would  explain,  "which  has 
been  carefully  selected  through  a  long  series  of  years.  The 
planting  of  this  seed  and  its  proper  cultivation  will  ir.ore 
than  double  your  yield  of  cotton.  We  have  come  to  you 
as  a  leading  farmer  of  this  vicinity  and  would  like  to  have 
you  make  a  demonstration  of  its  value.  The  demonstra- 
tion, we  believe,  will  not  only  convince  you  of  the  value 
of  good  seed  and  of  scientific  tillage,  but  will  also  teach 
your  neighbors  the  same  thing." 

Interest  once  aroused  and  confidence  gained,  the  neces- 
sary conditions  were  broached  one  by  one.  The  land 
must  be  plowed  in  the  fall.  "Why?"  Because  fall 
plowing  gives  mellowness  to  the  soil  and  affords  nature 
an  opportunity  to  prepare  plant  food  for  the  coming  sea- 
son. Moreover,  the  rows  of  cotton  must  be  planted 
wide  apart.  "Why?"  Because  85  per  cent,  or  more  of 
all  vegetation  is  light  and  air:  if  the  rows  are  close  to- 
gether, the  cotton  is  starved  and  smothered.  Again,  the 
cotton  must  be  cultivated  six  or  eight  tunes.  "Why?" 
Because  there  is  plenty  of  moisture  down  by  the  roots 
and  you  can  keep  it  there  only  by  constantly  breaking 
up  the  soil  so  that  it  may  not  be  evaporated  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun.  Thus  the  demonstration  was  in  the 
first  instance  a  simple  object  lesson.  A  few  shrewd 
aphorisms  controlled  Dr.  Knapp's  procedure:  "Don't 
confuse  people  by  elaborate  programs;  the  average  man, 
like  the  crow,  cannot  count  more  than  three."  And 
again:  " Do  the  next  thing."  He  formulated  and  widely 
circulated 


Demonstration  torn,  IQIO,  Thos.  Hitchcock  farm,  Aiken,  S.  C.  Land 
brought  up  from  five  bushels  to  sixty  bushels  per  acre  in  two  years  under 
demonstration  methods. 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  29 

THE    TEN   AGRICULTURAL   COMMANDMENTS 

1.  The  removal  of  all  surplus  water  on  and  in  the 
soil. 

2.  Deep  fall  plowing;  and  in  the  South  a  winter  cover 
crop  (oats,  wheat,  etc.). 

3.  The  best  seed,  including  variety  and  quality. 

4.  Proper  spacing  of  plants. 

5.  Intensive  cultivation  and  systematic  rotation  of 
crops. 

6.  The  judicious  use  of  barnyard  manure,  legumes, 
and  commercial  fertilizers. 

7.  The  home  production  of  the  food  required  for  the 
family  and  for  the  stock. 

8.  The  use  of  more  horsepower  and  better  machinery. 

9.  The  raising  of  more  and  better  stock,  including  the 
cultivation  of  grasses  and  forage  plants. 

10.  Keeping  an  accurate  account  of  the  cost  of  farm 
operations. 

BY-PRODUCTS 

In  his  talks  with  farmers,  bankers,  and  business  men — 
for,  though  keeping  headquarters  in  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington,  he  travelled  almost  inces- 
santly— Dr.  Knapp  endeavored  to  teach  his  hearers  not 
only  how  to  raise  cotton  and  corn,  but  how  to  conduct 
farming  as  a  business — how  to  ascertain  the  cost  of  a 
crop,  how  to  find  out  whether  they  were  making  or  losing 
money.  "Agriculture,"  he  was  accustomed  to  declare, 


30    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

"may  be  divided  into  eight  parts:  one  eighth  is  science; 
three  eighths  is  art;  four  eighths,  business  management." 
He  never  failed  to  expose  the  economic  fallacy  of  the 
factoring  system,1  and  urged  that  the  farmer  should  raise 
what  he  needed  for  his  family  and  his  stock,  rather  than 
buy  at  the  village  store,  in  exchange  for  his  one  crop. 
There  was,  of  course,  no  inherent  reason  for  the  restriction 
of  the  demonstration  method  to  the  production  of  cotton. 
As  rapidly  as  possible,  its  scope  was  broadened  for  the 
purpose  of  making  the  farmer  more  and  more  indepen- 
dent. He  was  stimulated  to  raise  stock,  to  produce 
feed  and  forage  for  his  stock,  and  to  interest  himself  in 
truck  gardening,  hog-raising,  etc.  A  group  of  Missis- 
sippi farmers  is  remembered  who  had  been  taught  by 
Dr.  Knapp's  representative  not  only  how  to  grow  cotton, 
but  how  to  grow  corn,  potatoes,  and  small  fruits,  and  how 
to  keep  accounts.  "How  many  of  you  made  your  living 
last  year?"  was  asked.  Every  one  replied  affirmatively. 
"How  many  two  years  ago?"  Not  one.  For  the  first 
time  in  their  lives  they  had  balances  in  the  bank  and  were 
measurably  independent  of  the  storekeeper.  As  a  result 
of  Dr.  Knapp's  teaching  there  is  good  prospect  that  the 
South,  which  has  long  sold  cotton  and  with  the  proceeds 
bought  food-stuffs,  will  grow  the  latter  as  well  as  the 
former. 

As  is  invariably  the  case  with  a  fertile  idea,  the  by- 
products of  the  demonstration  movement  are  thus  hardly 

1I.  c.,  mortgaging  the  cotton  crop  in  advance  in  order  to  obtain  the 
year's  supplies  of  meat,  flour,  corn,  clothing,  etc. 


Demonstration  hay  in  South  Carolina,  yielding  5,000  pounds  of  cured 
hay  per  acre  in  1912. 


Demonstration  in  oats,  Arkansas,  1911.     Yield,  ninety  bushels  per  acre. 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  31 

inferior  in  significance  to  that  of  the  original  idea  itself. 
An  agricultural  demonstration  is  essentially  a  cooper- 
ative undertaking,  the  financial  contributors,  the  agent, 
the  farmer,  the  community,  all  participating.  But  par- 
ticipation, once  started,  is  not  likely  to  stop.  As  a  next 
step  the  demonstration  agent  naturally  assembles  in 
"field  meetings"  all  neighborhood  farmers  engaged  or 
interested  in  demonstration  work;  a  certain  degree  of 
solidarity  is  created;  bulletins,  circulars,  pamphlets  are 
received  and  exchanged;  communications  are  established 
between  the  farmer  and  the  State  Agricultural  College  or 
the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture.  Various  begin- 
nings are  thus  made  in  the  direction  of  associated  enter- 
prise. 

CHARACTERISTIC   EXAMPLES 

Dr.  Knapp's  reports  and  correspondence  abound  in 
picturesque  and  dramatic  illustrations  of  the  foregoing. 
"It  is  important,"  he  says  in  one  place,  "to  confine  the 
work  to  standard  crops  and  the  instruction  to  basic 
methods  and  principles  until  every  farmer  knows  the 
methods  that  make  for  success,  instead  of  charging  failure 
to  the  moon,  to  the  season,  to  the  soil,  or  to  bad  luck." 
He  frequently  depicts  the  psychological  transformation 
that  the  demonstration  method  has  produced.  "Every 
step  is  a  revelation  and  surprise.  The  farmer  sees  his 
name  in  the  county  paper  as  one  of  the  farmers  selected 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  to  con- 
duct demonstration  work;  he  receives  instructions  from 
Washington;  he  begins  to  be  noticed  by  his  fellows;  he 


32    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

is  proud  of  planting  the  best  seed  and  doing  the  best 
cultivation.  When  the  demonstration  agent  calls  a 
field  meeting  at  his  farm,  he  begins  to  feel  that  he  is  a  man 
of  more  consequence  than  he  had  thought.  Immediately 
the  brush  begins  to  disappear  from  fence  corners  and  the 
weeds  from  the  fields,  the  yard  fence  is  straightened, 
whitewash  or  paint  goes  on  the  buildings,  the  team  looks 
better,  and  the  dilapidated  harness  is  renovated.  The  man 
made  a  good  crop,  but  the  man  grew  faster  than  the  crop." 

Characteristic  examples  may  be  cited  in  abundance. 
East  of  Brookhaven,  Mississippi,  lived  a  wretched  farmer 
on  poor,  piney  woodland  that  "five  years  ago  (this  was 
written  in  1910)  sold  for  $i  .00  an  acre."  He  was  $800  in 
debt  to  the  village  storekeepers;  very  rarely  had  he  made 
corn  and  hay  enough  to  last  beyond  March  ist;  he  did 
not  believe  that  his  land  was  "corn-land."  He  took  no 
papers  and  read  no  bulletins. 

Demonstration  work  began  in  his  county  in  1908;  but 
our  friend,  sceptical  and  depressed,  held  aloof  at  first. 
Induced  at  length  to  participate,  he  applied  demonstra- 
tion methods  to  five  eighths  of  an  acre  in  cotton,  from 
which,  to  his  amazement,  he  gathered  500  pounds  of  lint 
cotton.  His  respect  for  the  "government  method," 
as  it  was  called,  increased.  In  1909  his  entire  farm  be- 
came a  demonstration.  Despite  bad  seasonal  condi- 
tions, he  averaged  over  1,100  pounds  of  lint  cotton  per 
acre,  against  his  neighbor's  average  of  300-400  pounds. 
He  made,  besides,  500  bushels  of  corn,  and  from  one 
special  demonstration  acre  realized  152  barrels  of  high- 


Demonstration  cotton  in  boll  weevil  infested  territory  of  Louisiana  and 
Arkansas,  1912. 


A  contrast  between  demonstration  and  ordinary  methods  in  producing 
cotton  in  Xorth  Carolina  in  1910.  The  demonstration  crop  to  the  left 
will  average  between  i  ,400  and  i  ,500  |x>unds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre;  while 
the  field  at  the  right  will  make  between  400  and  500  pounds  per  acre. 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  33 

class  seed  which  he  sold  for  $300!  His  debts  are  now 
paid;  he  has  cash  in  bank;  his  daughter  attends  Whit- 
worth  College ;  his  sons  ride  daily  to  the  town  high  school ; 
he  himself  reads  the  government  agricultural  bulletins 
and  subscribes  for  five  agricultural  papers.  "It  pays," 
as  he  says;  but — in  Dr.  Knapp's  words — "the  man  grew 
faster  than  the  crop." 

Pages  might  easily  be  filled  with  similar  instances  il- 
lustrating the  transformation  wrought  by  awakened 
interest  and  practical  success;  but  we  must  con- 
tent ourself  with  a  single  additional  example:  a  poor 
"one-mule  farmer"  in  South  Alabama,  "in  debt  and 
without  hope" — a  pronounced  and  generally  accepted 
failure.  It  was  hard  work  to  induce  him  to  undertake  a 
demonstration  crop;  he  had  no  faith  in  "book-farming," 
and  thought  he  knew  more  about  raising  cotton  than  any- 
body from  Washington.  But  he  consented  at  last,  and 
great  was  his  surprise  at  the  outcome.  With  a  previous 
average  of  two  fifths  of  a  bale,  or  less,  to  the  acre,  he  now 
produced  eight  bales  on  seven  acres;  with  a  previous 
record  of  less  than  eleven  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  he 
now  made  fifty-two  and  one  half  on  a  two-acre  plot.  He 
closed  out  the  entire  output  at  fancy  prices,  receiving 
$865  as  against  $224.90  the  year  before.  His  conver- 
sion was  prompt  and  complete.  In  a  little  speech  at  a 
field  meeting  he  testified  that  "as  a  farmer  he  was  just 
one  year  old."  Now,  in  his  third  year,  he  has  become 
local  demonstration  agent  and  is  beginning  to  cherish 
legislative  ambitions! 


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FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  35 

UNDER   THE    GENERAL   EDUCATION   BOARD   THE   WORK   IS 
EXTENDED   THROUGHOUT   THE    SOUTH 

The  cooperation  of  the  General  Education  Board 
brought  about  an  immediate  and  rapid  expansion  of  the 
demonstration  movement  in  every  direction;  it  conquered 
new  territory,  dealt  with  a  rapidly  increasing  number  of 
activities,  and  touched  more  people.  In  1907  only 
Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas  were  worked  by  the 
national  government;  the  appropriation  of  the  General 
Education  Board  extended  the  work  to  .  Mississippi, 
Alabama,  and  Virginia;  in  1908  the  government  made 
additional  provision  for  Oklahoma;  the  General  Educa- 
tion Board  for  Georgia  and  the  two  Carolinas.  The  next 
year  the  government  took  over  Mississippi;  the  Board 
made  provision  for  Florida.  Government  funds  were 
next  employed  in  Tennessee;  the  Board's  in  West  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1913  the 
entire  region  covered  by  the  farm  demonstration  move- 
ment was,  in  so  far  as  the  source  of  financial  support  is 
concerned,  divided  as  follows: 

Appropriations    made    by  the           Contributions  of    the    General 

General  Government  Education  Board  were 

were  expended  in  expended  in 

Texas  Maryland 

Oklahoma  Virginia 

Louisiana  West  Virginia 

Arkansas  North  Carolina 

Mississippi  South  Carolina 

Alabama  Georgia  (North) 

Tennessee  Maine 
Florida  and  Georgia  (South)    New  Hampshire 


"I 

wo 


£? 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  37 

The  number  of  counties  reached  and  the  number  of 
farms  reached  in  each  county  increased  with  great  rapid- 
ity. Eleven  counties  in  North  Carolina  were  dealt  with 
in  1908;  fifty-six  in  1912 ;  twenty-three  in  Alabama  in  the 
former  year;  every  one  of  the  sixty-seven  in  the  state 
four  years  later.  At  the  close  of  1912,  out  of  1,163 
counties  in  all  the  Southern  states,  farm  demonstration 
work  was  in  progress  in  636,  ranging  from  100  in  Texas  to 
5  in  Maryland.  In  Alabama,  every  county  was  reached; 
in  South  Carolina,  95.4  per  cent,  of  the  counties;  in 
Mississippi,  81  per  cent.;  in  Arkansas,  77  per  cent.;  in 
Louisiana,  70  per  cent.;  Oklahoma,  55  per  cent.;  Florida, 
54  per  cent.;  North  Carolina  and  Virginia,  52  per  cent.; 
Texas,  40  per  cent.;  Tennessee,  27  per  cent.;  Maryland, 
21  per  cent.  Work  has  recently  been  started  in  six 
counties  in  Maine  and  in  five  in  New  Hampshire.  In 
the  New  England  States,  however,  the  work  is  managed, 
not  through  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, but  through  the  state  colleges  of  agriculture. 

The  expansion  of  the  work  is,  however,  most  plainly 
reflected  in  the  number  of  farms  and  farmers  affected. 
In  1906,  545  farms  were  reached;  a  year  later,  2,834; 
in  1908,  something  over  14,000;  in  1910,  63,622;  in  1912, 
106,621.  Twenty-five  thousand  adults  were  at  the  last- 
named  date  receiving  instruction  in  Texas;  over  15,000 
in  Oklahoma;  over  15,000  in  Arkansas;  10,500  in  Ala- 
bama; 6,190  in  Mississippi.  Demonstration  farms  are 
now  too  thickly  studded  to  show  on  a  map  of  small 
scale;  but  the  accompanying  maps  (4,  5,  and  6)  are  inter- 


Figure  4. 


Location  of  Demonstration  Farms  in  Mississippi,  1907 


Figure  5. 


Location  of  Demonstration  Farms  in  Mississippi,  1908. 


40    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

esting  as  indicating  the  rapid  growth  in  number  of  farms 
and  the  contagious  nature  of  the  movement.  The  dem- 
onstration farm  is  naturally  an  object  of  local  curiosity. 
By  actual  count  it  has  been  ascertained  that  from  thirty 
to  one  hundred  farmers  annually  visit  each  demon- 
stration. On  the  basis  of  the  lower  average  360,0x30 
persons  saw  the  12,000  demonstration  farms  cultivated 
in  1908. 

WORK   DIRECTED    BY    GOVERNMENT 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  states  in  which  government  money  and  those 
in  which  the  contributions  of  the  General  Education 
Board  were  expended.  The  constitutional  scruple  which 
suggested  itself  in  reference  to  Federal  support  of  purely 
educational  work  within  the  several  states  was  thus 
continuously  respected.  The  organization  and  admin- 
istration of  the  entire  work  were  nevertheless  completely 
unified  in  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington.  The  several  states 
had  as  such  no  way  of  knowing  whether  the  demonstra- 
tion work  within  their  respective  confines  was  supported 
by  one  party  to  the  agreement  or  the  other;  all  funds  were 
disbursed  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture ;  all  appoint- 
ments were  made  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture;  all 
reports  were  made  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture;  in 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  complete  administrative 
control  was  vested.  From  time  to  time  the  Secretary 
of  the  General  Education  Board  conferred  with  the  offi- 


Demonstration  peanuts  near  Comanche,  Okla.,  1912.      The  peanut  is 
taking  a  prominent  place  in  Oklahoma's  diversification  of  crops. 


Katir  corn,  as  one  of  the  surer  crops  for  the  semi-arid  section  of  Okla- 
homa.    This  is  a  demonstration  near  Ryan,  Okla.,  in  1912. 


Figure  6. 


Approximate  Location  of  Demonstration  Farms  in  Mississippi,  1914. 


42    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

cers  of  the  Department  in  reference  to  the  extension  of 
the  work  to  other  states,  its  enlargement  by  new  features, 
which  will  be  shortly  described,  and  similar  matters,  and 
duplicate  copies  of  various  reports  were  sent  to  the  Board. 
But  the  General  Education  Board  had  no  authority. 
Its  sole  desire  was  to  facilitate  the  progress  of  the  move- 
ment by  supplying  funds  which,  whatever  the  reason, 
neither  the  general  government,  nor  the  several  states, 
nor  other  organizations  or  individuals,  offered  to  furnish; 
and  its  ultimate  object  on  account  of  which  the  work 
was  originally  undertaken  remained,  viz.,  the  increase 
of  the  taxable  wealth  of  the  South  in  order — to  quote 
Dr.  Knapp's  pregnant  words — that  "schools  should 
follow  as  the  sequence  of  greater  earning  capacity  and 
should  not  be  planted  by  charity  to  become  a  tax 
on  poverty." 

ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   WORK 

The  conduct  of  the  work  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
special  agent,  reporting  directly  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Plant  Industry,  and  assisted  by  a  corps  of  field 
agents — classified,  according  to  the  territory  assigned  to 
them,  as  state,  district,  and  county  agents.1  These  agents 
are  selected  on  the  basis  of  special  fitness  and  experience 
and  are  governed  by  instructions  emanating  from  Wash- 
ington. The  size  of  the  force  grew  with  the  extent  of  the 
work;  it  numbered  only  twenty-four,  all  told,  in  1906, 

1  In  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  the  work  is  under  the  direction  of  the 
State  Agricultural  Colleges,  as  has  been  previously  stated. 


Field  meeting  on  demonstration  of  David  Johnson,  Houlka,  Miss. 
Field  in  cultivation  over  100  years.  This  corn  is  estimated  at  100 
bushels  per  acre. 


Agent  of  demonstration  work,  owner  and  overseer  on  the  (irinnun 
Plantation  at  Terrell,  Texas;  3,500  acres  in  improved  varieties  of 
cotton  and  corn. 


Figure  7. 


Farm  Demonstration  in  the  State  of  Maine. 
(Stars  mark  counties  in  which  demonstrations  are  in  progress.) 


Figure  8. 


Farm  Demonstration  in  the  State  of  New  Hampshire. 
(Stars  mark  counties  in  which  demonstrations  are  in  progress .) 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  45 

twenty  of  whom  were  supported  by  the  government, 
four  by  the  General  Education  Board;  thirty-six  the 
next  year,  twenty-one  on  the  government  pay-roll,  fifteen 
on  that  of  the  General  Education  Board;  one  hundred  and 
fifty-six  in  1908,  seventy-one  paid  by  the  government, 
eighty-five  by  the  General  Education  Board.  By  1912 
there  was  a  roster  of  639  agents,  not  counting  155  agents 
assigned  to  the  girls'  and  boys'  clubs  which  were,  as  we 
shall  see,  an  important  outgrowth  of  the  demonstration 
movement. 

ENLARGEMENT   DOES    NOT   AFFECT   METHOD 

Too  often  extension  involves  mechanization  and  con- 
sequent sterilization  of  educational  method;  with  an  in- 
crease of  numbers,  either  inferior  persons  are  employed, 
or  verbal  explanation  addressed  to  masses  supplants  con- 
crete experiment  or  demonstration.  In  the  present 
instance  no  such  deterioration  has  taken  place.  The  in- 
struction has  remained  concrete  and  individual;  and  the 
development  on  the  social  side  has  served  only  to  in- 
augurate additional  concrete  and  individual  experiments. 
Four  general  field  agents  now  keep  the  central  authority 
in  close  touch  with  the  work;  they  are  on  the  lookout  for 
local  difficulties;  in  addition,  they  appoint  times  and 
places  for  bringing  together  state  and  local  agents  for 
conference  and  instruction.  Thus  the  main  principles 
of  the  work  are  constantly  kept  prominently  before  those 
on  whom,  in  the  end,  success  depends.  Each  state  is 
supervised  bv  its  own  state  agent,  assisted  by  district 


46    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

agents  in  charge  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-fivelocalagents. 
The  state  and  district  agents  make  frequent  excursions 
with  the  local  representative,  examining  into  the  loca- 
tion of  farms,  assure  themselves  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
local  supervision,  and  communicate  observations  made  in 
other  sections  of  their  territory.  The  local  agent  is 
absolutely  responsible  for  the  number  and  success  of  the 
experiments  under  way  in  his  field;  for  the  amount  of 
enthusiasm  generated ;  for  the  extent  and  variety  of  other 
activities,  social  and  individual,  following  in  its  wake. 
The  tests  applied  are  throughout  actual,  and  as  long  as 
this  is  the  case  extension  involves  no  perils  to  the  spirit 
and  outcome  of  the  movement. 

APPROPRIATIONS:  GOVERNMENT,  GENERAL  EDUCATION 
BOARD,  AND  OTHER  SOURCES 

The  initial  appropriation  of  the  General  Education 
Board  in  1905  was  $7,000.  At  that  time  the  government 
was  devoting  $40,000  to  demonstrations  directed  against 
the  boll  weevil.  The  Board  appropriated  $30,900  the 
next  year,  $76,500  two  years  later,  $130,000  in  1911,  and 
$252,000  in  1913.  These  sums  were  unevenly  distrib- 
uted: in  1908-9,  $4,000  was  spent  in  Florida,  $15,000  in 
Virginia;  the  next  year,  $19,000  in  Virginia,  $30,000  in 
Georgia;  in  1911-12,  $23,000  in  South  Carolina,  $25,000 
in  North  Carolina.  For  the  current  year  the  appro- 
priation for  Maine  was  $19,500,  for  New  Hampshire 
$10,000. 

The  following  table  summarizes  the  total  cost  of  the 


Figure  9. 


Map    of 

BULLOCH  COUNTY 

GEORGIA 


Xiteo 

O  Ct-opfa'fion  farms 


This  illustrates  how  the  farmers  of  a  county  are  reached. 


48 


THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 


Southern  work  thus  far  and  shows  the  sources  of  the 
funds  by  means  of  which  it  has  been  carried  on: 


Year 

Government 

General  Education 
Board 

Other  Sources 

1903-04 
1904-05 
1905-06 
1906-07 
1907-08 
1908-09 

$27,316.04 
40,163.29 
40,000.00 
40,000.50 
85,901.85 
105,370.34 

$7,OOO.OO 
30,900.00 
69,300.00 
76,500.00 

$2,800.00 
4,200.00 
14,297.00 

1909-10 
1910-11 
1911-12 
1912-13 

229,449.17 
258,825.83 
363,792.19 
356,481.31 

IO2,OOO.OO 
118,000.00 
130,000.00 
140,050.00 

33,71441 
76,622.06 

I75,°54.i3 
272,568.57 

1913-14 

375,000.00 

252,000.00 

1490,i49-o8 

Totals 

$1,922,300.52 

$925,750.00 

$1,069,405.25 

By  all  odds  the  most  important  contributions  are  those 
designated  as  coming  from  "  other  sources."  The  govern- 
ment had  in  the  first  place  undertaken  to  deal  with  the 
boll  weevil;  the  General  Education  Board  had  supported 
a  straightout  educational  application  of  the  farm  demon- 
stration; and  success  had  promptly  achieved  the  most 
significant  result  that  outside  assistance  can  ever  achieve 
—it  had  led  the  Southern  people  to  help  themselves 
out  of  the  very  first  profits  of  their  new  insight.  In 
less  than  a  decade,  "other  sources" — i.  e.,  the  South- 
ern people  themselves,  were  paying  almost  50  per  cent, 
of  a  total  annual  expenditure  approaching  $1,200,000, 

1  Approximate. 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  49 

thus  vindicating  the  policy  on  which  the  Board  had 
acted. 

SELF-HELP 

The  tendency  to  self-help  showed  itself  very  early. 
Already  in  1909,  the  Virginia  legislature  created  an 
Agricultural  Board  with  an  appropriation  of  $15,000, 
which  was  used  in  actively  supporting  the  demonstra- 
tion work;  more  than  a  dozen  counties  made  additional 
appropriations  ranging  from  $300  to  $500  apiece.  In  the 
same  year,  $5,360  was  locally  raised  in  North  Carolina; 
$6,000  in  South  Carolina.  The  next  year  the  Alabama 
legislature  gave  $25,000;  the  Arkansas  legislature  au- 
thorized cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  counties.  In  1912, 
Georgia  raised  something  less  than  $14,000,  contributed 
by  the  State  Agricultural  College,  various  Chambers  of 
Commerce,  business  men,  and  local  committees.  Funds 
obtained  in  this  manner  represent  the  conviction,  effort, 
and  sacrifice  of  those  who  are  to  be  benefited — a  moral 
as  well  as  material  contribution.  The  initial  demonstra- 
tion had  to  be  financed  from  the  outside,  had  also  to  be 
temporarily  sustained  from  the  outside.  But  from  the 
moment  that  results  appeared,  local  support  was  due. 
The  preceding  account  shows  how  promptly  and  gener- 
ously it  came  forth.  In  the  end,  the  increased  resources 
of  the  South  will  fully  sustain  whatever  further  demon- 
strations may  be  necessary.  The  whole  incident  fur- 
nishes a  perfect  illustration  of  the  valuable  part  that  can 
be  played  by  private  beneficence.  Governmental  bodies 
can  with  difficulty  undertake  educational  experimenta- 


50    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

tion  on  radically  new  lines;  unofficial  organizations  are 
more  receptive  of  new  suggestions,  can  create  here 
or  there  the  conditions  required  for  an  experiment,  and, 
as  they  are  unhampered,  can  command  the  advice  and  the 
ability  needed  to  inaugurate  and  to  develop  a  novelty. 
A  successful  demonstration  once  made,  the  work  can 
be  turned  over  to  the  state,  and  the  funds  released  may  be 
devoted  to  the  solution  of  other  problems,  handled  ac- 
cording to  the  same  general  method  of  procedure. 

RESULTS 

Roughly  speaking,  it  is  fair  to  say  that  the  demonstra- 
tion method  doubles  the  crop  to  which  it  is  applied.  In 
1909,  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics  calculated 
that  the  average  yield  in  pounds  of  seed  cotton  was 
503.6  per  acre;  on  demonstration  farms  taken  by  them- 
selves the  average  was  906.1  pounds;  in  1910,  the  figures 
were  512.1  and  858.9  respectively;  in  1911,  624.6  and 
1081.8;  in  1912,  579.6  and  1054.8. 

Corn  makes  a  similar  showing.  The  Bureau  of  Sta- 
tistics reports  an  average  of  16.7  bushels  per  acre  in  1909 
for  states  in  which  demonstrations  were  in  progress;  on 
these  demonstration  farms,  however,  the  average  was 
31.7  bushels  per  acre;  subsequent  years  were  as  follows: 

Average  bushels  corn        Average  bushels  corn 
per  acre  taking  per  acre  on 

entire  states  demonstration  farms 

IQIO      ....      19.3  35.3 

19"     ....     15-8  33-2 

1912     ....     19.6  35.4 


Improved  farming  implements  being  explained  to  Xegro  farmers  by 
colored  District  Demonstration  Agent  T.  M.  Campbell,  of  Tuskegee 
Institute,  Alabama.  This  is  the  Jesup  wagon,  used  in  conveying  from 
place  to  place  good  implements,  stock,  poultry,  etc.,  that  their  advan- 
tages may  be  explained  to  demonstrators. 


A  field  of  prize  rye  grown  under  the  direction  of  colored  Demonstration 
Agent  Jas.  A.  Booker  (on  left),  Mound  Bayou,  Miss.,  1910. 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  51 

No  matter  how  the  figures  are  studied,  the  same  equally 
favorable  results  emerge.  In  Mississippi,  for  example — 
to  take  a  single  state — an  acre  of  land  yielded  in  1907 
on  the  average  17  bushels  of  corn,  or  228  pounds  of  lint 
cotton;  a  demonstration  acre  yielded,  however,  35  bush- 
els of  corn  or  445  pounds  of  lint  cotton.  In  Alabama,  in 
the  same  year,  average  acres  yielded  15.5  bushels  of  corn, 
169  pounds  of  cotton;  demonstration  acres,  37.6  bushels 
of  corn,  428  pounds  of  cotton. 

The  poorer  the  season,  the  more  clearly  the  demon- 
stration method  proves  its  superiority.  The  year  1911 
was  a  poor  one  for  crop  raising  in  the  South.  Drought 
was  severe  and  prolonged.  In  Texas  and  Oklahoma  it 
was  indeed  the  culmination  of  a  dry  period  covering  three 
successive  seasons.  Thousands  of  acres  planted  in  corn 
produced  nothing  at  all.  Oklahoma,  taken  as  a  whole, 
averaged  in  consequence  only  6.5  bushels  of  corn  to  the 
acre,  Texas  only  9.  Yet  the  demonstration  farms  aver- 
aged 13  bushels  per  acre  in  Oklahoma,  and  over  22  in 
Texas.  Under  the  unfavorable  boll-weevil  conditions  in 
Louisiana,  33,022  demonstration  acres  averaged  1063.5 
pounds  of  seed  cotton  as  against  an  average  of  522  pounds 
per  acre  for  the  entire  state. 

The  work  can  also  be  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  farmer's  financial  profit.  In  Alabama,  for  example, 
in  1912,  the  average  yield  of  lint  cotton  was  173  pounds 
per  acre;  but  demonstration  acres  averaged  428.3  pounds. 
Demonstration  methods,  therefore,  netted  the  farmer 
255.3  pounds  per  acre.  At  the  average  price  of  $65  a 


52    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

bale  for  lint  and  seed,  the  farmer  made  an  extra  $33  per 
acre;  as  there  were  8,221  acres  under  cultivation  on  the 
demonstration  method,  the  total  gain  was  $271,000.  In 
the  same  year,  7,402  acres  were  under  cultivation  in 
demonstration  corn.  Demonstration  acres  averaged 
26.9  bushels  more  per  acre  than  the  general  average  for 
the  state.  The  demonstration  farmers  of  the  state 
pocketed  $139,379.66  in  consequence. 

DIVERSIFICATION   OF   CROPS 

Though  corn  and  cotton  have  been  most  frequently 
instanced  in  this  account,  local  conditions  have  been 
everywhere  considered,  and  efforts  to  diversify  production 
have  been  increasing.  In  Virginia,  for  instance,  it  was 
soon  perceived  that  south  of  the  James  River  the  former 
tobacco  lands,  covered  with  sedge  grass  and  pine  brush, 
had  been  largely  impoverished.  The  tobacco  area  had 
been  gradually  reduced.  After  studying  the  situation,  it 
was  decided  to  try  the  substitution  of  hay  and  corn  for 
the  tobacco  crop,  with  the  ultimate  purpose  of  developing 
a  dairy  and  stock  country.  Six  years  later,  the  general 
agent  could  report  that  in  counties  where  demonstra- 
tions were  in  progress  15,000  acres  were  seeded  to  mixed 
grasses;  that  interest  in  grass  culture  was  rapidly  growing, 
and  that  2,000  acres  had  been  seeded  in  demonstration 
alfalfa  during  the  past  year.  Similar  phenomena  could 
be  cited  from  every  other  state.  In  South  Carolina,  for 
example,  vetch,  oats,  rye,  crimson  clover,  cowpeas,  and 
hay  are  now  raised  on  demonstration  farms.  The  farm- 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  53 

ers  of  the  state  had  previously  been  prejudiced  against 
the  cultivation  of  grasses.  A  regular  campaign  of  educa- 
tion was  undertaken.  Two  special  demonstrators  were 
enlisted;  the  seeding  was  done  in  late  September,  1911; 
the  hay  cut  and  cured  in  the  spring  and  summer  of  1912. 
There  were  but  two  failures  as  contrasted  with  many  pro- 
nounced successes.  At  a  total  cost  of  $41.20,  one  farmer 
near  Lowndesville  produced  12,300  pounds  of  hay  worth 
approximately  $125.  In  Maine,  demonstrations  were 
made  in  market  gardening,  orcharding,  and  potato  grow- 
ing, as  well  as  in  general  farming;  in  New  Hampshire, 
orcharding  and  dairying  have  been  particularly  empha- 
sized. Meanwhile,  whatever  the  crop,  the  demonstration 
agent  is  everywhere  the  evangelist  of  better  things :  "Our 
work  is  not  limited  to  better  cultural  methods  and  to 
securing  better  crops,"  writes  Dr.  Knapp.  "Every 
agent  is  instructed  to  insist  upon  a  general  clearing  up  of 
the  farm  and  an  improvement  in  all  farm  equipment, 
especially  comfortable  houses,  better  barns,  stronger 
teams,  better  implements,  removal  of  brush  patches,  and 
the  establishment  of  good  pastures." 

Hence  the  beneficent  results  of  the  farm  demonstra- 
tion work  are  not  limited  to  financial  profit  and  cannot 
be  entirely  measured  in  money.  The  disorganization 
characteristic  of  rural  life  and  of  the  agencies  concerned 
with  it  tends  to  disappear  before  the  types  of  cooperation 
and  intercourse  that  the  demonstration  movement  has 
initiated.  Colleges  of  agriculture,  farmers'  institutes, 
and  agricultural  high  schools  have  been  brought  into 


54    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

increasingly  intimate  relation.  These  contacts  are  trans- 
lating themselves  into  social  and  educational  terms. 
Indeed  the  social  and  educational  awakening  of  the  rural 
South  is  to  some  extent  at  least  a  by-product  of  the 
cooperative  demonstration  movement. 

DEMONSTRATION   AMONG   NEGRO   FARMERS 

The  Negro  farmer  has  been  quick  to  take  advantage 
of  such  opportunities  in  demonstration  work  as  have 
been  offered  to  him.  In  his  very  first  report  Dr.  Knapp 
writes:  "As  the  bulk  of  the  cotton  crop  is  produced  by 
colored  laborers  and  tenants,  all  our  agents  are  not  only 
instructed  but  of  their  own  choice  select  colored  farmers 
as  demonstrators,  visiting  them  regularly  and  giving 
them  every  attention."  In  some  states,  colored  local 
agents  work  under  the  white  state  agent.  At  Mound 
Bayou,  in  the  delta  region  of  Mississippi,  under  a  colored 
local  agent,  six  demonstrations  were  started  in  1907; 
forty-one  were  in  operation  the  following  year,  and  the 
sum  of  $50  was  raised  by  the  colored  people  themselves 
for  prizes.  In  Virginia  a  somewhat  different  plan  is 
pursued,  a  district  agent,  reporting  directly  to  Washing- 
ton, being  in  charge.  Hampton  and  Tuskegee  Institutes, 
and  many  other  industrial  and  agricultural  schools  for 
Negroes,  have  played  essential  parts  in  this  development. 
Their  training  has  produced  agents  and  teachers,  who  go 
out  into  life  persuaded  that  the  fate  of  the  race  depends 
primarily  on  improved  economic  efficiency.  Frequently, 
throughout  the  year,  the  Negro  farmers  of  the  neighbor- 


Negro  demonstrator's  home  "  Before  and  after."     A  little  whitewash, 
a  little  cleaning  up,  and  the  fences  straightened. 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  55 

hood  or  state  are  brought  together  to  see  and  to  value 
each  other's  product.  Pride  and  solidarity  are  thus  built 
up. 

The  precise  results  due  to  demonstration  efforts  among 
Negro  farmers  are  difficult  to  give,  because  many  colored 
farmers  are  enrolled  under  white  agents;  but  the  number 
of  colored  agents  is  gradually  increasing.  In  1910  there 
were  twenty- three ;  the  next  year  thirty-two.  At  the 
latter  date,  3,709  Negro  farmers  were  reported  by  name, 
and  it  was  estimated  by  the  Department  that  20,000 
were  under  instruction.  The  results  were  as  good  as 
those  obtained  by  the  whites:  in  South  Carolina,  for 
example  (where,  by  the  way,  56  per  cent,  of  the  farms 
are  operated  by  Negroes  without  white  supervision),  there 
were,  in  1911,  570  acres  of  cotton  and  449  acres  of  corn 
under  demonstration  by  Negroes.  The  average  yield 
per  acre  throughout  the  state  was  795  pounds  of  seed 
cotton,  and  18.2  bushels  of  corn:  the  Negro  demonstrators 
averaged  1567.9  pounds  of  seed  cotton,  and  38.1  bushels 
of  corn.  The  gain  in  money  at  current  prices  ap- 
proximated $24,000. 

Among  Negroes,  as  among  whites,  the  work  tends  to 
expand  in  scope.  Demonstrators  are  instructed  to  pro- 
cure information  regarding  the  rural  economy  of  the 
Negro  farmers:  how  many  plow  in  the  fall,  have  summer 
and  winter  gardens,  keep  a  cow,  care  for  poultry,  have 
pigs,  etc.  At  Snow  Hill,  Alabama,  the  Negro  demonstra- 
tors have  formed  a  club  and  agreed  on  "a  standard," 
requiring  every  member  to  possess  an  enclosed  garden, 


56    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

"in  which  something  must  be  kept  growing  the  year 
round;  to  keep  at  least  one  hog  for  each  member  of  his 
family,  not  less  than  thirty  hens,  and  one  or  two  cows;  to 
preserve  or  can  fruits  sufficient  for  the  family's  demand; 
to  plant  shrubs,  and  whitewash  the  house,  and  to  take  at 
least  one  agricultural  paper."  Local  agents  report 
many  instances  of  improved  farm  equipment  due  to 
demonstration  work:  home  gardens,  wire  fences,  new 
mules,  harvesters,  riding  cultivators,  grain  drills,  en- 
larged houses,  cleaned  premises,  and  the  liberal  use  of 
whitewash.  The  farm  demonstrator  and  the  farm  dem- 
onstration arouse  pride  and  stimulate  energy.  The  net 
outcome  has  never  been  more  picturesquely  summed 
up  than  by  a  Negro  farmer  in  Virginia :  "  You  done  turned 
de  kivers  down  and  waked  us  up." 

The  account  above  given  must  not,  however,  convey 
the  idea  that  farm  demonstrations  now  cover  the  field. 
This  is  not  the  case;  the  work  is  far  from  adequate  to 
the  need  and  the  demand.  Five  hundred  Southern 
counties  had  not  been  reached  at  all  at  the  end  of  1912; 
needless  to  say  that  perhaps  no  single  county  has  been 
exhaustively  worked  and  many  have  been  barely  touched. 
There  is  also  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  demon- 
stration method  has  significance  for  North,  East,  and 
West — not  for  the  South  alone.  At  best  a  substantial 
experiment  has  been  successfully  performed;  it  remains 
to  make  a  general  application  of  the  method.  Fortu- 
nately the  value  of  demonstration  has  been  so  clear  that 
the  Federal  Government  will  now  take  over  and  extend 


A  field  meeting  with  the  agents. 


A  boy's  demonstration  crop  (1909). 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  57 

purely  educational  farm  demonstrations;  success  has 
dissipated  the  constitutional  scruple  that  for  the  past 
ten  years  has  restricted  governmental  activities  in  this 
direction  to  plague-infested  states.  Needless  to  remark, 
however,  the  final  result  will  be  disappointing  unless  the 
movement  is  dominated  by  the  spirit  which  was  infused 
into  it  by  its  founder;  unless  the  same  standards  of 
fitness  continue  to  prevail  in  the  selection  of  the  ever- 
increasing  army  of  employees  who  will  be  required 
for  its  extension,  and  the  same  constant  regard  for  con- 
crete results  remains  the  test  applied  to  the  outcome. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  progress  of  the  movement  has 
itself  created  new  problems;  for  the  transportation  and 
marketing  facilities  of  the  South  are  already  inadequate 
to  advantageous  disposition  of  increased  and  diversified 
products.  Thus  in  a  living  and  developing  society  the 
solution  of  one  difficulty  invariably  involves  the  creation 
of  others.  Meanwhile,  Dr.  Knapp's  vision  is  fairly  on 
the  way  to  realization.  "It  will  take  time  to  transform 
the  methods  of  the  average  farmer,"  he  wrote  at  the 
outset,  "but  if  our  plans  are  persistently  followed,  the 
beneficent  results  are  as  sure  as  the  light  from  to-morrow's 
sun." 

BOYS'   CORN   CLUBS 

The  farm  demonstration  work  was  designed  to  reach 
adult  farmers.  Obviously,  the  need  for  instruction  of 
this  type  would,  in  the  long  run,  disappear  if,  so  to  speak, 
the  farmer  were  caught  younger.  The  boys'  corn  club 
was  designed  to  accomplish  this  end.  Sporadic  clubs 


58    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

had  already  been  organized  by  a  few  county  superin- 
tendents of  education,  when  in  1908  Dr.  Knapp  appro- 
priated and  made  the  most  of  the  idea.  As  far  as 
possible,  every  boy  should  plant  an  acre  of  corn  on  his 
father's  farm;  in  every  neighborhood  there  should  be  a 
local  boys'  corn  club ;  next,  county  and  state  organizations ; 
finally,  a  federation  of  corn  clubs,  including  every  South- 
ern state.  Local,  county,  and  state  prizes  should  be 
awarded;  the  topmost  boys  should  be  sent  to  Washington, 
to  meet  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  to  shake  hands 
with  the  President.  The  expanded  idea  was  an  effort 
to  appeal  to  the  boy's  imagination — assuredly  an  effective 
way  of  dignifying  the  farming  occupation.  But  the 
shrewd  old  teacher  knew  that  merely  decorative  distinc- 
tions would  in  the  long  run  prove  ineffective.  The  boy, 
therefore,  was  to  sell  his  crop  and  pocket  the  money! 

A  club  consists  essentially  of  a  group  of  boys  varying 
in  number  from  twenty-five  to  one  hundred,  and  ranging 
in  age  from  ten  to  eighteen.  Corn  and  cotton  are  both 
cultivated,  but  corn  is  preferred:  first,  because  the  South 
needs  more  corn;  secondly,  because  corn  lends  itself 
better  to  study  and  selection.  As  a  rule,  each  member 
works  a  plot  of  one  acre.  The  county  superintendent  of 
education  is  usually  in  charge.  Appointed  special  agent 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  with  a  nominal  salary 
of  one  dollar  a  year,  he  obtains  the  franking  privilege 
which  enables  him  to  procure  reports  from  the  boys  and 
to  disseminate  information  and  instruction  among  them. 
But,  more  and  more,  other  agencies  also  undertake  to 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  59 

cooperate,  prominent  among  them  being  state  colleges  of 
agriculture,  of  which  nine  were  regularly  connected  with 
the  work  in  the  year  1912.  1 

The  club  enrolment  has  increased  with  great  rapidity, 
as  the  following  figures  testify  : 

Year  Enrolment  of  Boys 

1908         .......      10,343 

I9°9         .......     45>°°° 

.......     46,225 


1912  .......     69,958 

1913  .......     9i,ooo(approx.) 

The  growth  of  club  work  is  itself  the  best  proof  of  the 
enthusiasm  excited  and  the  substantial  material  results 
achieved.  Nor  has  its  influence  been  limited  to  the 
boys;  for  the  crops  raised  have  set  new  standards  and 
opened  new  vistas  for  the  adult  farmer.  In  1910,  for 
example,  the  boys'  clubs  of  Holmes  County,  Mississippi, 
averaged  76  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  while  their  fathers 
were  averaging  16.  In  the  same  season,  100  boys  in 
various  parts  of  the  South  averaged  133.7  bushels,  and 
one  boy  produced  over  200;  the  following  season,  100 
boys  averaged  137.48  bushels,  7  boys  raised  over  200;  in 
1911,  471  made  over  100  bushels  to  the  acre;  in  1912, 
493.  In  the  awarding  of  prizes  for  these  notable  perform- 
ances various  factors  are  taken  into  consideration  and 
credit  is  given  accordingly:  30  per  cent,  is  allowed  for 
yield,  30  per  cent,  for  the  showing  of  profit,  20  per  cent. 

'The  expenses  of  carrying  on  the  boys'  club  work  have  been  defrayed 
out  of  the  appropriations  for  farm  demonstrations. 


6o 


THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 


for  the  best  ten  ears,  20  per  cent,  for  the  best  written 
report.  The  standards  are  thus  concrete,  but  not 
merely  quantitative. 

The  instances  above  cited  represent,  of  course,  the 
most  favorable  results;  but  the  general  average  of  the 
boys  is,  as  the  following  figures  show,  strikingly  superior 
to  results  otherwise  obtained : 


State 

Average  Yield  on 
Boy's  Acre 

Average  Yield  on 
Similar  Lands 

Alabama 

62.3 

17.2 

Arkansas 

49-5 

22. 

Florida 

38.58 

8. 

Georgia 

56-4 

14. 

Louisiana 

55-32 

2O.24 

Mississippi 

66.3 

18. 

North  Carolina 

62.8 

20. 

Oklahoma 

48. 

22.63 

South  Carolina 

68.79 

18.5 

Tennessee 

91.46 

35-5 

Texas 

38. 

24. 

Virginia 

59-5 

20. 

The  corn  club,  like  the  farm  demonstration,  is,  how- 
ever, at  best  as  yet  only  a  successful  experiment;  it 
remains  to  be  extended  and  developed.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that,  if  wisely  handled,  this  movement 
among  farm  boys  of  school  age  will  be  the  means  of  en- 
riching the  rural  school  by  associating  it  closely  with  the 
natural  interests  and  environment  of  its  pupils.  The 
boys  are  "learning  by  doing."  Instead  of  studying  text- 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  61 

books  on  agriculture,  instead  of  simply  listening  to  ex- 
planation and  exhortation,  they  are  performing  practical 
agricultural  tasks — tasks  which  form  the  basis  of  school 
work  on  the  subject.  Meanwhile,  the  mere  pecuniary 
outcome  is  far  from  negligible.  The  following  incident 
is  typical : 

Driving  through  Macon  County,  Alabama,  not  long 
ago,  two  strangers  observed,  in  a  large  field  of  ordinary 
corn,  a  patch  standing  out  like  a  miniature  skyscraper. 
They  dismounted  to  interview  the  owner.  A  Negro  boy 
approached. 

"  Is  this  your  corn?  " 

"Yes,  sir." 

"How  did  you  come  to  grow  it?" 

"One  of  Dr.  Knapp's  men  showed  me,  sir." 

"Why  did  you  plant  it  so  far  apart  in  the  rows?" 

"Because,  sir,  most  all  that  grows  comes  from  the 
sunshine  and  the  air." 

"  When  did  you  plow?  " 

"Last  fall,  sir." 

"Why?" 

"To  make  plant  food  during  the  winter." 

"Where  did  you  get  your  fertilizer?" 

"From  the  bottom,  sir." 

"How  many  times  did  you  cultivate?" 

"Six  times,  sir." 

"Why?" 

"Because  there's  water  down  next  to  the  clay,  and 
when  I  don't  plow  the  sun  draws  it  all  away." 


62    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

"  When  did  you  put  in  the  cowpeas?  " 

"After  the  last  plowing,  sir." 

"What  did  you  do  that  for? " 

"Because  the  cowpeas  get  out  of  the  air  nitrogen,  and 
put  back  in  the  ground  about  as  much  as  the  corn  takes 
out." 

How  many  valuable  lessons  had  this  remote  Negro  lad 
learned  from  doing  one  job  right!  But  this  is  not  the 
end  of  the  story.  His  double  crop  was  worth  $5  2 .  From 
his  pocket  he  pulled  a  dirty  little  pass-book,  the  entries 
in  which  showed  what  the  crop  had  cost.  Reckoning 
his  own  time  at  ten  cents  an  hour  and  his  father's  mule 
at  a  dollar  a  day,  he  netted  a  profit  of  $30  to  the  acre. 
His  younger  sister,  it  appeared,  had  had  an  equally 
profitable  quarter  of  an  acre  in  cotton.  Three  years 
later  both  were  students  at  Tuskegee,  paying  for  their 
education  with  the  money  earned  as  club  workers. 

GIRLS'   CANNING   AND  POULTRY  CLUBS 

Father  and  son  were  reached  by  the  methods  above 
described;  mother  and  daughter  remained  to  be  dealt 
with.  "The  demonstration  work,"  wrote  Dr.  Knapp  in 
his  report  under  date  October,  1910,  "has  proven  that  it 
is  possible  to  reform  by  simple  means  the  economic  life 
and  the  personality  of  the  farmer  on  his  farm.  The 
Boys'  Corn  Clubs  have  likewise  shown  how  to  turn  the 
attention  of  the  boy  toward  the  farm.  There  remains 
the  home  itself — and  its  women  and  girls.  This  problem 
cannot  be  approached  directly.  The  reformer  who  tells 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  63 

the  farmer  and  his  wife  that  their  entire  home  system  is 
wrong  will  meet  with  failure.  With  these  facts  in  view, 
I  have  begun  a  work  among  girls  to  teach  one  simple  and 
straightforward  lesson  which  will  open  their  eyes  to  the 
possibilities  of  adding  to  the  family  income  through 
simple  work  in  and  about  the  home." 

Something  of  the  kind  had  indeed  already  started  near 
Aiken,  South  Carolina,  where  Miss  Marie  Cromer  had 
purchased  a  canning  outfit  and  organized  some  canning 
clubs  among  the  girls  of  the  vicinity,  tomatoes  having 
been  chosen  as  the  most  available  garden  vegetable. 
Once  more  Dr.  Knapp  seized  upon  an  idea,  and  in  vision 
saw  it  encompassing  the  entire  South.  He  saw  in  it  a 
means  of  importing  a  new  interest  into  the  home,  of 
bringing  about  cooperation  in  domestic  tasks  between 
mother  and  daughter,  of  encouraging  rural  families  to 
provide  better  food  at  lower  cost  by  utilizing  orchard 
and  garden  products,  of  providing  girls  a  way  of  earning 
money,  of  furnishing  teachers  a  method  of  helping  entire 
communities. 

The  method  is  simple :  each  girl  takes  one  tenth  of  an 
acre  and  is  taught  how  to  select  the  seed,  to  plant,  culti- 
vate, and  perfect  the  growth  of  the  tomato  plant.  Mean- 
while, portable  canning  outfits  have  been  provided,  to  be 
set  up  out  of  doors — in  the  orchard  or  the  garden — and 
trained  teachers  of  domestic  science  instruct  the  local 
teachers  in  the  best  methods.  When  the  tomatoes  are 
ripe,  the  girls  come  together,  now  at  one  home,  now  at 
another,  to  can  the  product.  It  is  done  in  the  most  up- 


64    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

to-date  fashion.  The  girls  are  taught  the  necessity  oi 
scrupulous  cleanliness;  they  sterilize  utensils  and  cans, 
seal  and  label,  and  indeed  manufacture  an  easily  market- 
able product.  Naturally,  other  garden  produce  and 
poultry  soon  become  objects  of  interest  and  care.  A 
representative  exhibit  would  contain  pears  and  peaches, 
chow-chow  and  tomato  soy,  mustard  pickles  and  pickled 
onions,  corn  on  the  cob  and  preserved  plums.  The  girls 
write  essays  on  the  "Life  History  of  the  Tomato  and 
Its  Uses,"  "Gardening  and  Canning  Arithmetic," 
"The  Value  of  Vegetables  in  the  Daily  Diet,"  "How 
to  Set  a  Table,"  "How  to  Cook  a  Piece  of  Meat," 
and  so  on.  They  have  to  draw  sketches  of  their 
plots,  to  figure  out  and  report  on  the  cost  of  their  crop 
and  its  market  value.  A  prize  is  bestowed  on  the  girl 
who  gives  the  greatest  number  of  recipes  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  a  given  vegetable.  All  sorts  of  things  thus  im- 
mediately relate  themselves  to  the  job  of  canning. 

The  enrolment  duplicates  the  experience  of  the  boys' 
clubs.  Three  hundred  and  twenty-five  girls  were  registered 
the  first  year;  3,000  the  next;  23,550  in  the  year  following; 
in  1913  there  were  upward  of  30,000  in  fourteen  differ- 
ent states.  This  army  of  workers  was  under  the  general 
direction  of  the  special  agent  in  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture in  charge  of  the  Farm  Demonstration  work, 
acting  through  the  trained  women  who  were  the  state 
and  county  agents.  Headquarters  were  attached  to 
the  state  agricultural  college,  a  normal  school,  or  other 
educational  institution.  Where  the  appointment  of  a 


A  club  member  and  her  well-tended  plant  full  of  fruit. 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  65 

special  agent  was  not  feasible,  the  corn  club  agent 
served.  By  the  close  of  the  season  1912,  134  agents 
were  in  the  field:  15  each  in  Alabama  and  North  Caro- 
lina, 14  in  Mississippi,  12  in  South  Carolina,  and  n 
in  Georgia. 

The  entire  expense  of  the  Girls'  Canning  Club  work 
has  at  all  times  been  borne  by  the  General  Education 
Board  except  for  local  contributions.  In  1911,  an  in- 
itial appropriation  of  $5,000  was  made;  $25,000  the  fol- 
lowing year;  in  May,  1913,  the  appropriation  of  the 
Board  for  this  purpose  was  $75,000.  Though  the  na- 
tional government  through  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture has  had  entire  control  and  supervision,  it  has  borne 
no  part  of  the  expense.  The  states  in  which  the  work 
is  now  going  forward  on  this  basis  are  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas. 

The  average  profit  made  by  girls  reporting  in  twelve 
states  was  $21.98;  but  not  a  few  made  sums  far  in  excess. 
A  Lincoln  County,  Mississippi,  girl  realized  a  net  profit 
just  under  $100  on  her  950  cans  of  tomatoes;  a  neighbor 
made  1,008  cans  with  a  profit  to  herself  of  $77.73;  a  girl 
living  in  Aiken  County,  South  Carolina,  netted  $60.51. 
Nor  are  these  figures  rough  guesses.  The  accounts  are, 
in  these  instances,  carefully  kept.  They  reckon  rent, 
cost  of  preparing  and  cultivating  the  soil,  fertilizer,  cans, 
labels,  labor,  vegetables  sold,  vegetables  used  fresh  for 
home  consumption,  etc. 


66    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

The  imponderable  indirect  gains  are  certainly  not 
less  important.  Canning  club  day  is  a  social  occasion. 
Mother  prepares  something  a  little  extra  for  luncheon, 
and  asks  the  aid  and  instruction  of  the  teacher  in  charge 
of  the  Canning  Club.  The  home  is  "tidied  up,"  tables 
are  properly  set  out  and  decorated,  bouquets  of  wild 
flowers  appear  here  and  there  about  the  rooms.  The 
boys  come;  mothers  and  fathers  come;  the  neighborhood 
is  there !  Thus  social  interest  is  kindled  about  the  doing 
of  something  worth  while.  There  follows  a  spirit  of 
mutual  helpfulness,  mutual  concern,  mutual  affection. 
This  sort  of  thing  lays  the  foundation  for  cooperation 
in  larger  and  more  important  things — in  the  church,  in 
the  school,  in  charities,  in  business.  With  the  sharpened 
vision  of  a  man  nearing  his  end,  Dr.  Knapp  saw  all  this. 
His  last  visit  to  the  offices  of  the  General  Education 
Board  was  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  the  expansion 
of  the  girls'  club  work.  He  was  already  stricken  with 
illness,  but  he  was  not  too  feeble  to  foretell  what  might 
be  accomplished  through  this  work  for  Southern  woman- 
hood. This  was  indeed  his  last  legacy. 

EDUCATIONAL  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  DEMONSTRATION 
MOVEMENT 

The  facts  above  stated  are  not  to  be  regarded  as 
indicating  an  accomplished  transformation.  No  such 
transformation  has  been  achieved.  The  data  merely 
show  the  existence  now  of  numerous  foci  of  fresh  inter- 
est and  activity,  which,  if  multiplied  indefinitely,  seem 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  67 

destined  to  bring  about  far-reaching  material  and  social 
changes.  In  a  broad  sense  of  the  term  this  is  assuredly 
educational  work  of  the  most  valuable  kind.  But,  on 
closer  scrutiny,  it  will  appear  that  demonstration  work  is 
educational  even  in  the  narrower  technical  sense,  and,  as 
such,  in  line  with  the  entire  modern  educational  move- 
ment. 

The  work  was  not  begun  in  pursuance  of  any  educa- 
tional theory.  It  embodied  the  reaction  of  a  fresh  mind 
applied  to  a  specific  concrete  situation.  In  the  first  in- 
stance, an  effort  was  made  to  deal  with  an  unsatisfactory 
agricultural  situation  by  improving  the  farmer  himself. 
This  was,  in  effect,  to  create  a  trade  continuation  school 
for  agriculturists.  The  demonstration  movement  em- 
bodied, perhaps  more  or  less  unconsciously,  the  idea  that 
a  man  is  a  single  organic  thing;  that  his  education  and 
environment  are  vitally  related  to  each  other;  that  this 
relation  does  not  arbitrarily  stop  until  he  stops,  as  dead, 
or  utterly  unprogressive ;  that  all  his  life  a  really  live 
man  ought  to  be  gaining  from  his  environment  and  re- 
acting favorably  on  his  environment;  that  out  of  this 
shuttlecock  movement  come  increasing  economic  security, 
widening  of  horizon,  and  spiritual  awakening.  The  trade 
continuation  school  is  valuable  because  it  favors  this  sort 
of  growth  for  the  urban  artisan ;  the  farm  demonstration 
work  has  achieved  precisely  the  same  thing  for  the  agri- 
culturist. Neither  Dr.  Knapp  nor  those  in  the  General 
Education  Board  who  supported  him  foresaw  all  this;  but 
the  passing  of  a  decade  makes  it  plain  to  those  who  survey 


68    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

the  field  in  the  effort  to  ascertain  and  comprehend  what 
has  happened. 

The  boys'  corn  clubs  and  the  girls'  canning  clubs  may 
be  similarly  interpreted.  They  were,  as  has  been  stated 
above,  extremely  unpretentious  outgrowths  of  the  demon- 
stration idea.  What  more  natural  than  that,  after  the 
father  has  been  assisted  to  make  more  cotton  and  more 
corn  and  better  cotton  and  better  corn,  the  boy  should 
be  caught  earlier,  and  the  girl  taught  the  domestic  sides 
of  improved  agricultural  processes?  The  authors  of  the 
scheme  had  no  further  educational  philosophy  as  its 
sanction.  Indeed,  the  educational  philosopher  must, 
like  other  philosophers,  come  after  the  event.  The  step 
was  taken  to  meet  a  situation;  and,  like  all  sound  steps 
similarly  taken,  it  developed  unsuspected  significance. 

The  Southern  club  movements  may  contain  the  germ 
of  the  solution  of  the  vocational  problem  in  the  rural 
districts.  They  take  up  relevant,  vital,  fundamental 
activities  and  make  them  part  of  the  normal  process 
of  growth.  The  activities  involved  are  useful;  they  are 
productive;  they  make  for  intelligent  living  in  the  child's 
environment;  they  increase  his  economic  competency; 
they  do  not  tie  him  to  the  soil,  if  any  sufficient  reason 
exists  for  his  leaving  it;  they  make  him  more  contented 
and  more  efficient,  however,  if  he  stays  there.  They  fit 
in  with  the  more  intellectual  work  in  the  schoolroom 
without  overburdening  the  school  by  making  it  the  sole 
custodian  of  the  growing  child,  the  sole  sponsor  for 
everything  he  gets — a  tendency  all  too  plainly  evident  in 


FARM  DEMONSTRATIONS  69 

urban  education ;  finally,  the  clubs  develop  the  capacity 
for  united  action  and  may  thus  prove  the  beginning  of 
more  effective  cooperation  in  our  future  rural  life.  A 
serious  problem  would  be  solved  if  some  form  of  voca- 
tional training  could  be  found  for  the  city  boy  that 
is  equally  simple,  general,  concrete,  useful,  profitable, 
broadening,  and  allied  with  other  equally  valuable  con- 
crete and  social  activities. 

There  is,  however,  still  another  aspect  to  be  pondered. 
Too  often  the  school  devitalizes  material  in  order  to 
adapt  it  to  what  are  supposed  to  be  schoolroom  require- 
ments. Not  only  literature  and  history,  but  concrete 
things  like  physics  and  chemistry,  are  thus  at  time? 
systematized  to  death.  Manual  training,  though  of  un- 
doubted educational  value  as  sense  and  muscle  training, 
has  fallen  short  of  the  hopes  based  upon  it,  to  the  extent 
that  it  has  been  formalized.  Industrial  and  vocational 
training  is  clearly  open  to  the  same  danger;  for  the  more 
or  less  mechanized  imitation  of  industrial  and  vocational 
processes,  apart  from  the  exigencies  and  stimuli  of  real 
conditions,  may  prove  to  be  only  another  kind  of  manual 
training.  It  is  fortunate,  indeed,  that  the  rural  situ- 
ation is  so  far  simple  that  it  can  be  handled  on  the 
vocational  side,  without  transferring  everything  to  the 
school;  indeed,  without  subjecting  the  vocational  sub- 
ject matter  to  the  processes  of  refinement  and  abstraction 
that  are  all  too  apt  to  result  in  sterilization.  The 
Southern  club  work  has  wholly  escaped  this  fate,  because 
it  has  been  carried  on  in  normal  ways  in  its  natural 


70    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

habitat,  and  because  its  outcome  has  been  subjected  to  the 
real  tests  of  the  market.  The  boys  have  cultivated  a  real 
acre  apiece  on  the  farm;  the  girls  have  cultivated  a  real 
tenth  of  an  acre  in  the  family  garden.  The  boys  have 
measured  their  corn  in  current  bushels  and  sold  it  at 
market  price ;  the  girls  have  had  to  comply  with  the  pure 
food  law.  The  cash  return  has  been  larger  or  smaller, 
according  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  result. 
The  conditions  have  been  precisely  those  prescribed  by 
the  task  itself;  the  incentives  have  been  precisely  those 
that  operate  upon  mature  men  and  women,  and  the 
reality  of  both  process  and  result  grips  the  growing  boy 
and  girl.  For  this  reason  the  club  work  is  likely  to  be  a 
determining  influence  in  life;  the  activity  is  actual,  the 
standards  are  actual,  and  the  results — economic  and 
moral — genuine. 


IV.     SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

A'  IERICAN  education  is  organized  in  three  divi- 
sions :  the  graded  or  elementary  school,  the  high 
school,  and  the  college  or  university.  During 
the  first  two  decades  succeeding  the  war,  provision  was 
made  by  law  in  all  the  Southern  states  for  the  organ- 
ization of  public  elementary  school  systems.  In  a  sub- 
sequent section  of  this  report1  the  state  of  elementary 
education  in  the  South  will  be  somewhat  fully  discussed. 
Suffice  it  at  this  point  to  say  that  elementary  school 
systems  existed  in  skeleton  at  least,  and  that  in  the  cities 
especially  these  skeletons  were  in  process  of  being  endued 
with  flesh  and  blood.  Every  state  also  possessed  its  State 
University,  usually  of  antebellum  origin,  while  privately 
supported  colleges  were  then,  as  now,  superabundant. 
Under  this  plan  of  organization  the  high  school  is  of 
strategic  importance.  Without  it,  the  elementary  pupil 
lacks  a  powerful  incentive  to  continue  his  schooling. 
Moreover,  without  adequate  facilities  in  the  form  of 
secondary  education,  a  competent  body  of  elementary 
school  teachers  cannot  be  obtained  in  sufficient  numbers; 
the  elementary  teachers  could  have  only  such  education 
as  is  furnished  by  elementary  schools,  supplemented,  per- 
fection VII  (pp.  179-189),  dealing  with  rural  education. 

71 


72    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

haps,  by  a  small  amount  of  normal  school  training  or  a 
brief  period  in  a  "college"  or  academy.  The  proper 
development  of  elementary  education  is  thus  necessarily 
dependent  on  the  vigor  of  the  high  school. 

The  college  or  university  is  equally  dependent.  It  is 
not  a  question  as  to  whether  college  standards  are  high 
or  low;  from  the  standpoint  of  educational  organization 
this  is  not  the  main  consideration.  An  effective  college 
can  be  developed  from  any  one  of  several  starting-points, 
a  two-year,  a  three-year,  or  a  four-year  high  school. 
Essential  only  are  the  precision  of  the  point  of  depart- 
ure and  close  articulation  between  the  two  types  of  in- 
stitution. A  sound  system  of  higher  education  presup- 
poses the  existence  of  high  schools  with  adequate  courses 
of  study  taught  during  a  definite  series  of  years  by  com- 
petent instructors.  Without  such  facilities  at  the  sec- 
ondary school  level  the  college  must  be  formless  and 
relatively  ineffective.  Thus,  higher  education,  as  well  as 
elementary  education,  is  peculiarly  dependent  on  the 
high  school. 

SOUTHERN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 

The  educational  surveys,  to  which  repeated  reference 
has  already  been  made,  dealt,  therefore,  fully  with  high 
school  conditions  in  the  several  Southern  states.  A 
chaotic  situation  was  disclosed.  High  schools  had  in- 
deed been  enumerated  in  reports  issued  by  State  De- 
partments of  Education  and  by  the  Bureau  of  Education 
in  Washington.  But  these  statistics  were  found  to  be 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  73 

entitled  to  little  credence.  Though  real  high  schools  had 
been  established  in  a  number  of  cities,  in  general,  even 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  a  so-called  high 
school  was  merely  the  addition  of  two  or  occasionally  three 
grades,  with  as  many  rooms  and  teachers,  to  an  elemen- 
tary school.  Even  so,  nine  years  ago,  only  some  thirty 
or  forty  schools  in  Virginia  could  claim  to  offer  two  or 
three  extra  grades  doing  high  school  work ;  and  in  North 
Carolina,  only  thirty-five  schools  set  up  a  similar  claim. 
For  the  most  part  the  "high  school"  reported  in  the 
statistics  was  shadowy  and  confused  in  the  extreme. 
It  had  no  separate  rooms  or  instructors,  no  organized 
curriculum,  no  regularly  organized  classes,  no  differenti- 
ation of  subject  matter  according  to  the  qualifications 
of  the  teachers.  Indeed,  the  subject  matter  was  limited 
to  what  could  be  taught  from  textbooks  to  individuals 
or  small  groups;  laboratory  or  other  equipment,  there 
was,  generally  speaking,  none.  In  Alabama,  to  illustrate, 
409  schools  were  reported  in  1902  as  teaching  high  school 
branches,  but  no  information  was  obtainable  as  to  what 
the  branches  were.  There  were,  for  the  most  part,  no 
definite  higher  grades.  At  most,  the  figures  mean  that 
some  pupils  were  studying  under  highly  inauspicious 
conditions  certain  subjects  not  regularly  included  in  the 
elementary  course.  Five  years  later  a  more  critical 
estimate  reduced  the  number  of  schools  "attempting 
high  school  work"  to  something  like  a  hundred,  of  which 
sixty-one  were  rated  as  "auxiliary  schools  of  the  State 
University."  But  even  of  these  "the  majority  can 


74    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

scarcely  be  dignified  with  the  title  of  high  school,  so 
limited  both  in  time  and  content  are  their  'courses  of 
study.' "  Outside  of  a  small  number  of  modest  second- 
ary schools  in  large  towns,  the  Alabama  high  school  was 
thus  at  this  period  nothing  but  a  more  or  less  uncertain 
addition  to  a  primary  curriculum. 

Similar  conditions  existed  in  other  states.  Of  the 
high  schools  of  South  Carolina,  for  instance,  it  was  said 
less  than  a  decade  ago  that  "few  offer  a  course  of  study 
of  sufficient  length;  fewer  than  one  fourth  offer  more 
than  one  course  of  study;  in  most,  the  teaching  force  is 
inadequate;  and  a  few  are  entitled  to  be  called  high 
schools  only  by  courtesy." 

PRIVATE    SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 

The  lack  of  public  high  schools  was  temporarily,  and 
for  the  most  part  very  poorly,  compensated  by  numerous 
private  schools  and  academies,  usually  meagre  in  outfit 
and  transient  in  point  of  duration.  In  North  Carolina, 
for  example,  there  were  reported  to  be  486  secondary 
schools  in  1900;  three  years  later  the  same  authority 
reports  only  283,  and  of  these,  135  were  not  contained 
in  the  previous  list.  Not  infrequently;  where  the  school 
endured  even  so  brief  a  period,  its  name  changed  or  its 
location  shifted.  In  Alabama,  206  private  schools  en- 
rolling upward  of  8,000  pupils  and  doing  both  secondary 
and  elementary  work  were  reported  in  1902;  they  were 
in  the  main  the  merest  makeshifts,  admittedly  destined  to 
"die  when  better  public  standards  demand  the  develop- 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  75 

ment  of  modern  public  high  schools."  Similarly,  in  North 
Carolina,  even  in  the  more  important  towns:  while  the 
Raleigh  public  school  had,  for  instance,  only  seven 
grades,  six  private  schools  flourished  in  the  town. 
Whereas  in  South  Carolina  private  schools  were  less 
numerous  and  important,  the  "colleges" — superabun- 
dant as  they  were — operated  "preparatory  depart- 
ments," despite  the  fact  that  the  "college"  was  itself, 
as  a  rule,  merely  a  sort  of  high  school,  "though  not 
regarded  as  such."  Altogether,  they  had  little  endow- 
ment; for  the  most  part  they  were  supported  by  fees  mod- 
est in  the  extreme — $60  to  $75  a  year  in  towns,  and  $2.50 
a  month  in  the  country.  In  general,  no  inference  as  to  the 
character  of  the  enterprise  could  be  made  from  the  title 
by  means  of  which  these  schools  were  described.  A  few 
were  semi-collegiate  in  character;  a  few  were  good, 
though  narrow,  preparatory  schools;  others  were  feeble 
schools  of  the  same  scope;  many  were  hardly  more  than 
inefficient  primary  schools.  They  were  largely  without 
equipment  of  any  sort;  most  of  them  offered  no  definite 
courses  of  instruction;  commonly  a  single  teacher — or 
perhaps  two — tutored  a  miscellaneous  aggregation  of 
boys  and  girls  of  all  sizes,  ages,  and  degrees  of  competency 
in  a  bewildering  variety  of  "subjects." 

Particularly  in  Virginia  and  Tennessee,  however,  the 
private  school  was  not  infrequently  a  more  substantial 
affair,  though  weak  ventures  were  even  in  those  states 
far  too  abundant.  In  Tennessee,  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity, the  first  Southern  institution  of  learning  to  promul- 


76    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

gate  and  insist  upon  a  definite  basis  for  matriculation, 
had  promoted  the  development  of  a  number  of  efficient 
"  fitting  schools."  The  subjects  taught  were  conventional 
in  character — Latin,  Greek,  Mathematics,  etc. — such 
subjects,  in  a  word,  as  could  be  successfully  handled  in 
unendowed  schools  relying  on  fees  for  maintenance  and 
profit.  To  meet  the  Vanderbilt  requirements  certain 
schools  already  in  existence  modified  and  stiffened  their 
programs;  and  a  considerable  number  of  new  schools  were 
established  and  manned  largely  by  Vanderbilt  graduates 
for  the  express  purpose  of  fitting  boys  for  the  university. 
Ninety-eight  such  schools,  claiming  property  valued  at 
$2,358,850,  with  739  instructors  and  17,508  students, 
were  listed  by  the  State  Superintendent  in  his  report 
for  1904,  and  the  list  was  not  exhaustive.  In  consequence 
of  the  growth  of  these  sources  of  supply  Vanderbilt  was 
enabled  as  far  back  as  1887  to  discontinue  its  own  pre- 
paratory department.  The  fitting  school  could  not,  of 
course,  take  the  place  of  the  public  high  school;  it  was  too 
narrow  in  scope,  too  limited  in  aim.  It  answered,  at 
best,  for  those  who  could  afford  to  pay  the  tuition  and 
who  expected  to  go  to  college.  To  the  larger  numbers 
who  craved  wider  opportunities,  who  could  not  pay 
the  fees  or  for  whom  the  secondary  school  must  itself 
be  the  educational  terminus,  the  fitting  school  was 
ill-adapted.  But  it  performed,  nevertheless,  a  genuine 
service  in  emphasizing  the  necessity  of  separately 
organized  and  competently  manned  schools  of  secondary 
type. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  77 

COLLEGE   AND   SECONDARY    SCHOOL 

While  the  high  school  was,  as  has  been  stated  above, 
confusedly  involved  with  a  poorly  organized  elementary 
school  at  one  end,  its  relationship  with  the  college  was 
equally  unsatisfactory  at  the  other.  Some  of  the  state 
universities  had  indeed  attempted  articulation  with  sec- 
ondary schools  by  arranging  "approved"  or  "aux- 
iliary" lists.  But  recognition  of  this  sort  at  that  time 
signified  little  or  nothing.  The  universities  had  no 
adequate  knowledge  of,  or  influence  over,  the  schools;  the 
schools  were  too  commonly  powerless  to  improve  them- 
selves. Of  forty-four  such  high  schools  on  the  approved 
list  of  the  State  University  of  Louisiana,  eleven  were  at- 
tempting a  course  of  study,  complete  on  paper,  in  a 
shortened  session  and  with  a  single  teacher;  eight  of 
them  enrolled  fewer  than  fifteen  pupils  apiece;  thirteen 
had  no  books  of  reference  at  all;  twenty-six  were  without 
the  least  equipment  for  teaching  physics;  thirty-one 
were  equally  bare  of  equipment  for  teaching  chemistry ;  in 
only  six  did  pupils  use  note-books  for  their  science  work. 
Of  an  approved  high  school  in  Alabama  it  was  stated  at 
about  the  same  date  that  the  teacher  had  been  able  "by 
teaching  two  classes  at  the  same  time  to  have  his  pupils 
'finish'  the  courses  in  the  allotted  time  ";  the  school  build- 
ing was  described  as  "dirty,  ill-kept,  and  foul-smelling." 

The  foregoing  facts  are  even  now  recited  in  no  un- 
sympathetic spirit.  Under  the  circumstances  nothing 
better  could  have  been  expected.  Systematic  public 


78    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

education  was  a  new  thing  in  the  South.  It  could  not 
spring  into  existence,  clearly  organized,  satisfactorily 
manned,  and  decently  equipped.  A  start  had  to  be 
made,  and  in  the  absence  of  buildings,  teachers,  money, 
and  experience,  this  start  was  bound  to  be  chaotic. 

OBSTACLES   TO   DEVELOPMENT 

High  schools  could  not,  however,  be  created  out 
of  hand.  Even  in  the  cities  where  school  boards  were 
more  or  less  free  to  act,  money,  buildings,  and  teachers 
were  difficult  to  procure.  In  the  counties  and  rural 
districts  these  serious  difficulties  were  often  com- 
plicated by  the  absence  of  favorable  sentiment  or  by 
statutory  obstacles,  now  negative,  now  positive  in 
character.  Neither  the  Constitution  nor  the  State 
School  Law  of  South  Carolina  recognized  the  high  school 
as  an  essential  part  of  the  school  system,  further  than  the 
mere  grant  of  the  privilege  of  establishing  schools  of 
secondary  grade;  and  this  indifference  of  constitution 
and  statutes  proved  a  complete  block  to  development. 
The  obstruction  in  Georgia  was  much  more  serious;  for 
the  law  provided  that  "there  shall  be  a  thorough  system 
of  common  schools  for  the  education  of  children  in  the 
elementary  branches  of  an  English  education  only"  and, 
further,  that  the  "  General  Assembly  shall  not  have  power 
to  delegate  to  any  county  the  right  to  levy  a  school  tax 
for  any  purpose  except  for  instructing  children  in  the 
elementary  branches  of  an  English  education  only."  The 
State  Department  of  Education  could  not  support,  as- 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  79 

sist,  or  supervise  public  high  schools,  nor  could  counties 
or  rural  districts  create  and  sustain  them.  Thus  pro- 
hibitive obstacles  were  incorporated  in  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  State.  , 

BEGINNINGS    OF    IMPROVEMENT 

At  the  same  time  unmistakable  signs  of  better  things 
could  be  discerned.  The  Tennessee  legislature  had 
already  authorized  county  courts  to  provide  for  the  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  of  one  or  more  county  high 
schools,  by  levying  the  necessary  taxes,  appropriating  from 
money  not  already  otherwise  disposed  of,  and  creating 
a  special  county  high  school  fund;  and  several  towns  and 
counties  had  taken  favorable  action,  though  without 
concerted  effort  as  to  the  length  of  the  course,  the  cur- 
riculum, etc.  In  Mississippi,  school  trustees  were  au- 
thorized to  establish  in  graded  schools  a  high  school  course 
of  four  years  or  less  with  a  seven  months'  term,  to  fix 
reasonable  fees,  if  they  so  chose,  and  to  admit  pupils 
from  outside  the  district  on  payment  of  a  proper  fee;  but 
no  provision  was  made  for  state  direction,  supervision, 
or  support.  In  Virginia,  a  state  subsidy  to  locally 
created  and  sustained  high  schools  had  been  proposed 
in  the  legislature,  though  without  favorable  action  on 
the  proposition  as  yet.  In  Georgia,  the  university, 
which  had  never  had  a  preparatory  department,  had 
taken  hold  of  the  situation,  having  appointed  a  high 
school  inspector  through  whose  efforts  an  accredited  list 
of  fifty-one  schools,  only  five  of  them  private,  had  been 


So    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

got  together.  In  this  direction  Mississippi  had  also 
been  effectively  busy.  Observing  that  only  3  per  cent, 
of  those  who  passed  through  its  preparatory  department 
reached  graduation,  as  compared  with  25  per  cent,  of 
those  who  entered  from  outside  schools,  the  university 
abolished  the  department  in  question  in  1892  and  threw 
itself  deliberately  on  the  secondary  schools  of  the  State. 
Cooperation  between  this  institution,  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  and  the  State  Teachers'  Association 
was  brought  about;  the  high  school  course  of  study  was 
revised;  members  of  the  faculty  visited  schools,  conferring 
with  patrons  and  trustees;  and  an  affiliated  list  was  made 
out,  on  which,  in  1902,  there  were  fifty-nine  schools. 
Thus,  without  especially  favorable  legislation,  aggressive 
and  tactful  leadership  on  the  part  of  the  State  Univer- 
sity, in  cooperation  with  other  agencies,  was  beginning 
to  produce  results. 

From  these  incipient  endeavors  to  deal  with  the  situ- 
ation, the  General  Education  Board  took  its  cue.  A 
sound  secondary  school  movement  had  already  begun; 
the  project  was  therefore  not  a  foreign  suggestion,  but  of 
local  origin.  It  was  in  essence  the  response  of  the  South- 
ern people  to  the  increasing  urgency  of  their  own  needs. 
But,  for  lack  of  resources  and  leadership,  the  local  move- 
ment was  making  slow  and  irregular  progress.  There 
was,  as  a  rule,  no  one  whose  business  it  was  to  inform, 
cultivate,  and  guide  professional,  public,  and  legislative 
opinion.  There  was  need  in  every  state  of  a  trained 
specialist  in  secondary  education,  who,  while  sympathiz- 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  81 

ing  with  local  conditions,  might  skilfully  and  tactfully 
marshal  all  available  forces  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
concerted  action  calculated  in  time  to  realize  a  secondary 
school  system. 

THE   PROFESSORS   OF    SECONDARY   EDUCATION 

Neither  State  Departments  of  Education  nor  State 
Universities  had  at  the  moment  funds  to  devote  to  the 
promotion  of  such  a  program.  At  this  juncture,  the 
General  Education  Board  stated  its  willingness  to  make 
appropriations  to  the  several  state  universities  for  the 
salaries  and  traveling  expenses  of  a  professor  of  Second- 
ary Education  who  was  to  be  a  regular  member  of  the 
university  faculty  and  whose  "main  and  principal  work 
shall  be  to  ascertain  where  the  conditions  are  favorable 
for  the  establishment  of  public  high  schools  not  now  in 
existence;  to  visit  such  places  and  to  endeavor  to  organ- 
ize in  such  places  public  high  schools  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  the  State;  to  endeavor  to  create  in  such 
communities  a  public  sentiment  that  shall  permanently 
sustain  such  high  schools,  and  to  place  the  high  schools 
under  such  local  leadership  as  shall  give  them  intelligent 
and  wise  direction,  and  he  and  the  university  shall  ex- 
ercise a  fostering  care  over  such  institutions." 

Consistently  with  the  policy  of  the  General  Education 
Board,  these  professors  of  secondary  education  became 
state  and  university  officials,  answerable  to  their  state 
and  university  superiors  and  to  them  alone.  The  Board 
did  not  dictate  or  suggest  the  lines  along  which  they 


82    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

should  exert  themselves.  With  a  common  general  aim, 
the  precise  procedure  followed  was  never  the  same  in  any 
two  instances.  The  sketch  above  given  will  show  how 
the  local  situations  varied :  here  the  law  was  fairly  favor- 
able, there  fatally  obstructive,  in  another  place  passively 
permissive.  Here  the  field  was  more  or  less  encumbered 
with  private  schools;  there  it  was  relatively  open.  In 
one  state,  sentiment  was  more  or  less  favorable,  and  efforts 
were  already  making;  another  was  indifferent;  a  third, 
perhaps,  hostile.  Under  such  circumstances,  workers 
could  share  an  ultimate  ideal  and  could  meet  to  exchange 
experiences,  but  they  could  not  follow  a  single  path.  In 
any  event,  the  General  Education  Board  was  satisfied 
to  provide  the  necessary  funds  which  would  enable  the 
State  University,  the  State  Department  of  Education, 
the  high  school  representative,  and  other  interested 
agencies  to  work  out  the  local  problem  in  whatever  way 
their  own  judgment  approved. 

The  first  contract  of  this  character  was  madein  Virginia, 
in  1905;  the  latest  in  Kentucky,  in  1910.  Cooperative 
work  in  this  field  is  now  under  way  in  the  following  eleven 
states:  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Georgia,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Virginia,  and  West  Virginia.  In  Louisiana,  the  work 
begun  by  the  Board  in  1907  has  been  taken  over  by  the 
state. 

THEIR   METHODS    OF    WORK 

In  no  state  was  a  cut  and  dried  program  pursued.  The 
professors  of  secondary  education  were  in  the  first  place 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  83 

critical  students,  each  of  the  conditions  in  his  own  state. 
Their  reports  contain  accurate  and  detailed  accounts  of 
secondary  education  from  the  standpoint  of  law,  local 
sentiment,  the  number  and  value  of  school  buildings, 
school  equipment,  cost,  curriculum,  teaching,  enrolment, 
etc.  For  the  first  time  thoroughly  reliable  information 
procured  at  first  hand  became  available;  it  was,  moreover, 
diffused  through  special  bulletins  and  through  the  re- 
ports of  State  Superintendents,  so  that  the  Southern 
people  learned  to  face  frankly  the  facts  of  their  situation. 
In  addition,  the  professors  of  secondary  education  were 
high  school  evangelists,  traveling  well-nigh  incessantly 
from  county  to  county,  returning  from  time  to  time  to  the 
State  University  to  do  their  teaching,  or  to  the  State 
Capitol  to  confer  with  the  State  Superintendent.  Wher- 
ever they  went,  they  addressed  the  people,  the  local 
school  authorities,  the  county  court,  teachers,  business 
men  and  business  organizations,  county  and  state  con- 
ferences, etc.  They  sought  almost  any  sort  of  opportu- 
nity in  order  to  score  a  point.  Law  or  no  law,  they  urged 
their  hearers  to  make  voluntary  efforts  toward  a  county 
high  school,  if  a  start  had  not  yet  been  made;  to  add  a 
grade  or  a  teacher  to  a  school  already  started;  to  repair 
the  building  or  to  provide  a  new  one;  to  consolidate 
weak  district  schools  into  a  larger  one  adequate  to  town 
or  county  needs.  Nor  did  they  merely  expose  defects, 
tender  advice,  and  employ  exhortation:  they  not  only 
urged  a  policy,  but  nursed  a  situation.  By  correspond- 
ence they  kept  in  touch  with  places  already  visited;  from 


84    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

time  to  time  they  returned,  to  renew  pressure  or  to  rec- 
ognize achievement.  Especially  in  their  earlier  efforts 
they  relied  largely  on  the  contagion  of  example,  and  skil- 
fully played  off  one  vicinity  against  another.  By  this 
method,  five  county  high  schools  having  been  previously 
established,  eleven  more  were  started  in  Tennessee  by 
the  efforts  of  the  secondary  school  representative  in  his 
very  first  year;  thereafter  counties  were  the  more  easily 
persuaded,  coaxed,  or  shamed  into  activity.  A  small 
Virginia  county  seat  had  a  $100,000  courthouse;  bonds 
had  been  issued  for  that,  for  waterworks,  sewerage,  and 
electric  lights;  but  six  hundred  children  went  to  school  in 
an  obsolete  and  inadequate  building.  An  agreement 
was  practically  extorted  from  the  town  fathers  to  pre- 
serve the  next  surplus  for  a  high  school  and  to  utilize 
the  credit  margin  still  remaining  for  the  same  purpose. 
A  North  Carolina  town  of  some  10,000  inhabitants,  with 
fair  private  schools,  had  done  nothing  in  the  way  of  public 
schools.  "Indeed  there  is  a  lingering  prejudice  against 
public  education — a  relic  of  the  time  when  a  public 
school  was  regarded  as  a  charity  school."  A  movement  to 
set  up  public  schools  being  endangered  by  local  rivalries, 
the  secondary  school  representative  exerted  himself 
to  bring  about  harmony,  and  the  election  vindicated  his 
efforts.  Similar  incidents  might  be  quoted  from  every 
other  Southern  state. 

The  work  has  been  extremely  trying.  Fortunately 
the  men  were  young,  hardy,  and  enthusiastic — pioneers 
in  physique,  as  they  were  evangelists  in  spirit.  "After 


District  High  School,  Clendeik.  Kanawha  County,  \V.  Va.     Xew  building. 


Public  Ilit^h  Sch(K>l  Building,  Tupelo,  Miss.     K reeled  1914. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  85 

breakfast,  the  County  Superintendent  and  I  " — so  reads 
a  characteristic  report — "started  across  country  to  Fall 
Branch,  seventeen  miles  from  Jonesboro.  We  addressed 
a  good  crowd  of  citizens,  and  three  members  of  the  county 
court  who  were  present  promised  to  vote  for  the  high 
school  tax.  At  3.30  we  were  due  at  a  church  twenty- two 
miles  distant.  The  roads  were  very  bad,  our  carriage 
broke  down,  and  we  failed  to  reach  the  church  in  time. 
Returning  to  Jonesboro,  we  had  supper  and  drove  to 
Telford,  from  which  place  we  planned  to  get  to  Washing- 
ton College  for  a  night  meeting.  But  transportation 
was  lacking.  It  was  dark  and  raining,  but  we  walked 
three  miles  to  the  college,  and  found  a  good  crowd  waiting 
for  us."  The  most  isolated  section  of  Virginia  lies  north 
of  the  York  River  and  east  of  Fredericksburg.  There  is 
not  a  foot  of  railway  in  it,  though  it  is  rich  in  agricultural, 
fishing,  and  lumbering  industries.  "We  found  traveling 
difficult;  naphtha  launches,  midnight  steamers,  relays 
of  buggies  had  to  be  relied  on.  During  one  dusty  day 
we  traveled  in  three  different  vehicles,  held  three  differ- 
ent meetings  with  school  trustees,  waited  till  midnight  for 
a  boat,  rode  till  five  in  the  morning,  and  after  sleeping 
two  hours,  arose,  held  another  meeting,  and  drove  twenty 
miles  to  catch  a  train."  In  the  summer  of  1906  the 
Tennessee  representative  and  the  State  Superintendent 
made  a  campaign  that  touched  every  county  in  the 
state.  Its  central  purpose  was  to  impress  upon  the 
people  the  importance  of  having  a  complete  and  well- 
articulated  school  system  from  the  elementary  school  in 


86    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

the  rural  districts  through  the  high  school  and  normal 
school  to  the  university.  The  attendance  at  this  series 
of  mass  meetings  ranged  from  one  hundred  to  seven 
thousand — perhaps  one  thousand  being  the  average. 
The  meetings  began  in  Memphis,  July  2oth,  and  closed  at 
the  opposite  end  of  the  state  just  three  months  later 
to  the  day;  seventy-nine  towns  had  been  visited  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  speakers  had  participated,  the  Gover- 
nor, university  and  college  presidents  among  the  number. 
These  efforts  are  fairly  representative  of  one  phase  of  the 
activities  of  the  professors  of  secondary  education. 

FAVORABLE    LEGISLATION 

It  was  from  the  first  clear  that  sporadic  successes  due 
to  voluntary  initiative  on  the  part  of  interested  commu- 
nities would  not  suffice.  They  could,  at  best,  whet  the 
appetite  for  a  substantial  secondary  school  system.  Aside 
from  local  benefit,  they  were,  however,  valuable  because 
they  reduced  opposition  to  satisfactory  legislation — con- 
stitutional or  statutory  as  the  case  might  be.  Within 
less  than  a  decade  important  legislative  gains  have  been 
made.  In  Georgia  the  prohibitions  above  noted  have 
been  expunged  from  the  State  Constitution:  counties 
and  school  districts  may  now  vote  local  taxes  by  two 
thirds  of  those  voting;  under  which  provision  thirty-nine 
counties  and  some  nine  hundred  school  districts  have 
taken  affirmative  action.  By  two  other  amendments, 
the  limitation  of  public  education  to  "the  elements  of  an 
English  education  only"  has  been  removed;  a  State 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  87 

Board  of  Education  has  been  created,  and  a  comprehen- 
sive system  of  licensing  has  just  been  started.  Florida 
has  amended  its  constitution  so  as  to  enable  school  dis- 
tricts to  sell  bonds  to  provide  school  buildings  and  equip- 
ment; and  steps  have  been  taken  to  insure  higher  quali- 
fications for  the  teaching  license.  State  grants  in  aid 
of  high  schools  locally  started,  not  yet  brought  about  in 
all  the  states,  are  at  any  rate  now  made  in  South  Caro- 
lina, North  Carolina,  Florida,  Arkansas,  West  Virginia, 
and  Virginia,  while  Tennessee  has  materially  increased 
its  allowance;  qualifications  for  teachers  in  assisted  high 
schools  have  been  set  up  in  Georgia,  Arkansas,  Tennes- 
see, North  Carolina,  and  West  Virginia;  county  agricul- 
tural high  schools  have  been  established  in  Alabama  and 
Mississippi;  legislation  favorable  to  the  establishment 
of  farm  life  schools  and  farm  life  departments  has  been 
passed  in  North  Carolina.  The  foregoing  account  is 
not  exhaustive;  but  it  shows  that  the  Southern  states 
are  now  in  a  fair  way  to  provide  the  proper  basis  for  an 
adequate  secondary  school  system. 

It  can  fairly  be  said  that  in  framing  and  putting 
through  this  legislation  the  high  school  representatives 
supported  by  the  General  Education  Board  have  in 
every  instance  taken  a  leading  part.  They  would,  how- 
ever, be  the  first  to  refuse  any  undue  credit.  The  or- 
ganizations already  mentioned — the  Peabody  Board,  the 
Southern  Education  Board,  and  the  Conference  for  Edu- 
cation in  the  South — had  greatly  stimulated  the  demand 
for  adequate  and  orderly  educational  facilities;  in  every 


88    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

state,  local  bodies  and  organizations,  state  and  local 
officials  were  working  along  one  line  or  another  to  arouse 
educational  interest.  The  secondary  school  men  profited 
immensely  by  all  this  activity;  at  the  same  time  they 
made  their  own  valuable  contribution  by  directing  effort 
toward  a  definite  and  valuable  object. 

RESULTS 

Favorable  legislation  has  been  generally  followed  by 
immediate  results,  so  ripe  was  the  situation  everywhere 
for  action.  The  Alabama  law  in  regard  to  county  high 
schools  required  that  towns  in  which  these  schools  are 
located  must  furnish  at  least  five  acres  of  ground  and  a 
building  costing  not  less  than  $5,000.  Eighteen  counties 
promptly  promised  buildings  costing  $277,000,  no  place 
offering  less  than  twice  the  minimum  required  by  law; 
supplemental  local  appropriations  for  annual  support 
to  the  extent  of  $1,000  to  $2,000  were  voted;  and  light, 
water,  and  fuel  were  also  promised  in  some  instances. 
The  town  of  Prescott,  Arkansas,  was  a  disappointed 
competitor  for  one  of  the  new  State  Agricultural  High 
Schools,  despite  a  generous  offer  of  money  and  land. 
The  citizens  were,  however,  induced  by  the  high  school 
representative  to  turn  over  to  the  local  school  board  what 
the  state  had  not  accepted;  and  the  little  town  thus  came 
into  possession  of  a  building  costing  $24,000,  exclusive  of 
furniture,  a  farm  of  thirty  acres,  a  four-year  high  school 
course  with  electives  in  science,  manual  training,  do- 
mestic science,  and  agriculture. 


Clinton  Public  High  School,  Sampson  County,  X.  C.     Erected  in  1912. 


Murphy  Hi^h  School,  Cherokee  County,  X.  C. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  89 

The  passage  of  a  law  marked  the  beginning  of  new 
endeavors  rather  than  the  cessation  of  old  ones — en- 
deavors to  induce  the  communities  to  make  the  fullest 
use  of  the  opportunities  for  high  school  development 
created  by  the  legislation  just  obtained.  The  methods 
followed  by  the  secondary  school  men  may  indeed  be 
commended  as  ideally  adapted  to  the  promotion  of  edu- 
cational and  social  reform.  Their  homes  were  in  the 
states  they  served;  they  took  up  a  sympathetic  attitude 
toward  local  problems  and  conditions;  acquainted  them- 
selves with  the  history  and  resources  of  the  states;  dealt 
candidly  and  plainly  with  every  constituency — on  the 
one  hand  without  passion  or  sensationalism,  on  the 
other  without  the  faintest  suspicion  of  exploitation  or 
the  faintest  imputation  of  self-interest;  proposed  meas- 
ures that  were  within  range  of  possibility,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  were  essential  parts  of  a  far-reaching 
scheme  to  be  developed  bit  by  bit  as  opportunity 
afforded.  In  homely  language,  they  have  kept  "pegging 
away,"  quietly,  persistently,  and  with  ultimate  purposes 
far  beyond  the  immediate  propositions,  the  adoption  of 
which  they  have  urged  at  any  particular  place  or  any 
particular  moment.  Their  progress  has  not  been  marked 
by  explosions  which  shake  a  state  like  an  earthquake, 
and  are  presently  forgotten  when  some  new  exposure  in 
another  field  takes  place;  but  interest  and  enthusiasm 
have  steadily  grown  on  the  basis  of  achievement,  with- 
out any  liability  to  reaction  or  any  sign  of  revulsion  of 
feeling. 


go    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

NUMBER   OF   HIGH    SCHOOLS 

A  few  statistics  will  convey  an  idea  of  what  has  thus 
far  been  accomplished.  It  has  been  pointed  out  above 
that  a  decade  ago  or  less,  the  four-year  high  school, 
properly  so-called,  was  practically  non-existent  in  the 
South  outside  a  few  large  towns;  that  in  general  the  high 
school  was  for  the  most  part  vague  and  formless.  Though, 
as  we  shall  see,  the  term  "high  school"  does  not  yet  mean 
the  same  thing  or  the  same  sort  of  thing  everywhere,  it 
is  nowadays  used  in  the  South  with  a  fair  degree  of 
critical  caution.  In  this  sense,  since  the  appointment 
of  the  "Professor  of  Secondary  Education,"  174  four- 
year  high  schools  have  been  established  in  Virginia,  no 
in  North  Carolina,1  78  in  Georgia,  88  in  Alabama,  37 
in  Tennessee,  18  in  South  Carolina,  13  in  Florida,  31  in 
Mississippi,  62  in  Arkansas,  15  in  West  Virginia.  Three- 
year  high  schools,  many  of  which  will  shortly  add  the 
missing  year,  are  numerous:  Georgia  has  started  132, 
North  Carolina  100,  Arkansas  60,  Virginia  146,  West 
Virginia  12,  Tennessee  37,  South  Carolina  88,  Alabama 
23,  Florida  14. 

STUDENT   ENROLMENTS 

With  this  development,  the  enrolment  of  pupils  has 
kept  pace.  The  high  schools  of  Georgia  enrol  25,000 
pupils;  those  of  Alabama  over  20,000  boys  and  girls; 
those  of  Mississippi  over  10,000;  North  Carolina,  8,500 

1  Of  these,  sixty-two  are  rural,  forty-eight  city,  high  schools. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  QI 

in  the  country,  and  8,000  in  towns;  Virginia,  over  18,000. 
In  Kentucky  there  has  been  an  increase  in  attendance 
of  4,000  in  three  years.  In  the  final  year  of  the  four- 
year  high  schools  the  enrolment  is,  of  course,  still  modest : 
550  in  the  rural  high  schools  and  950  in  the  city  high 
schools  of  North  Carolina;  470  in  South  Carolina;  1,143 
in  Arkansas;  in  Mississippi,  about  1,000;  in  Georgia, 
1,241;  in  Tennessee,  715;  in  Virginia,  1,613;  boys  and 
girls  are  included  in  all  these  figures.  The  number  of 
full-time  high  school  teachers — teachers  not  distracted 
by  having  to  do  also  odds  and  ends  of  primary  work — is 
keeping  pace;  South  Carolina  employed  160  in  1906,  and 
412  in  1913 — a  gain  of  almost  160  per  cent.,  indicative 
of  a  far  keener  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  an  ade- 
quately trained  teaching  body,  for  more  and  more  of 
these  full-time  teachers  are  college  graduates.  In  the 
same  way  Tennessee  employs  392  full-time  teachers  in  the 
117  four-year,  three-year,  and  two-year  high  schools 
established  since  1905;  Arkansas  106  in  the  99  high 
schools  set  up  since  1908.  In  Georgia  full-time  teachers 
increased  from  149  to  443  between  1905  and  1914. 

IMPROVED   BUILDINGS 

In  this  same  period  very  considerable  sums  have  been 
invested  in  new  school  buildings  of  improved  type:1 
$1,750,000  in  North  Carolina,  $1,500,000  in  Florida, 
$1,265,000  in  South  Carolina,  $2,500,000  in  Mississippi, 
a  little  under  $2,000,000  in  Tennessee,  almost  $3,000,000 

1  Often  used  for  the  grades  as  well. 


Q2          THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

in  West  Virginia,  more  than  $3,000,000  in  Georgia,  and 
more  than  $4,000,000  in  Virginia.1  The  state  appor- 
tionments in  aid  of  high  schools  locally  maintained  are 
beginning  to  reach  considerable  dimensions;  for  thi3 
purpose,  Alabama  has  already  paid  almost  $1,000,000; 
Georgia,  $659,600;  Tennessee,  $282,940;  North  Caro- 
lina, $500,000;  South  Carolina,  over  $300,000.  Private 
subscription  is  perhaps  most  significant  of  all.  In  Alabama 
$685,000  has  been  thus  donated,  the  relatively  large 
sum  being  accounted  for  by  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
raising  funds  by  taxation;  in  Tennessee,  where  taxation 
has  been  relatively  liberal,  private  parties  have  contrib- 
uted $172,000  toward  high  school  buildings  and  equip- 
ment; in  North  Carolina,  $250,000.  A  few  cuts  printed 
as  illustrations  (pages  84  to  98)  convey  some  notion 
of  the  improvements  now  taking  place  in  Southern 
school  architecture.  These  buildings  are,  of  course,  still 
the  exception;  but  they  represent  what  is  rapidly  be- 
coming a  general  ambition  to  dignify  education  by  mak- 
ing the  schoolhouse  one  of  the  most  striking  and  at- 
tractive buildings  in  the  community. 

APPROPRIATIONS    OF    GENERAL   EDUCATION  BOARD 

The  appropriations  of  the  General  Education  Board 
in  connection  with  the  secondary  school  movement 

*It  wall  be  understood  that  throughout  the  figures  deal  only  with  the 
period  of  activity  of  the  professor  of  secondary  education;  this  means 
since  1905  in  Virginia,  Alabama,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  North  Caro- 
lina; since  1906  in  South  Carolina;  since  1907  in  Florida  and  Louisiana; 
since  1908  in  Arkansas  and  Mississippi;  since  1909  in  West  Virginia;  since 
1911  in  Kentucky. 


Marion,  S.  C.,  High  School. 


1'arugould  High  School,  Ark.     Cost  $30,000.     Buill  in  1909. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  93 

above  described  have  been  as  follows  up  to  June  30, 
1914: 

State  Since  Total 

Virginia 1905  $30,500.00 

North  Carolina  ....  1905  28,250.00 

Georgia 1905  17,840.00 

Alabama 1905  26,624.99 

Tennessee 1905  21,144.79 

South  Carolina   ....  1906  26,166.67 

Florida 1907  10,172.36 

Louisiana 1907  14,000.00 

Mississippi 1908  19,166.66 

Arkansas 1908  18,875.00 

West  Virginia     ....  1909  15,150.00 

Kentucky 1911  14,000.00 

Conference,  September,  1913  970.62 

Grand  total    .     .    $242,861.09 

The  foregoing  account  reveals  a  movement  rich  in 
promise.  But  the  point  adverted  to  in  dealing  with  the 
farm  demonstrations  may  well  be  emphasized  anew  in 
this  connection.  As  yet  only  a  beginning  has  been 
made.  Eight  years  ago  the  term  "high  school"  con- 
veyed in  the  South  no  definite  meaning;  now  it  represents 
a  fairly  well  conceived  educational  entity,  the  place, 
scope,  and  requirements  of  which  are  quite  widely  appre- 
ciated. The  experience  of  Arkansas  may  be  cited  in 
illustration.  There  the  endeavor  has  been  made  not 
only  to  add  to  the  number  of  complete  high  schools  and 
to  get  the  children  into  them,  but  to  give  the  term  "high 
school"  a  clear,  substantial  meaning.  The  state  aid 
law,  passed  in  1911,  requires  assisted  schools  to  conform 


94    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

to  a  standard  in  length  of  term,  length  of  recitation  period, 
number  of  teachers,  course  of  study,  etc.  These  require- 
ments are  defined  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  of 
which  the  professor  of  secondary  education  is  not  only  a 
member,  but  the  secretary  and  school  inspector.  The  first 
year  more  than  one  hundred  schools  met  the  standard; 
now,  after  the  law  has  been  in  force  only  three  years, 
practically  all  high  schools,  whether  receiving  state  aid 
or  not,  are  organized  and  operated  in  accordance  with 
the  regulations  of  the  State  Board. 

The  vastness  of  the  task  still  to  be  achieved  is  fully 
realized  by  those  who  have  been  the  pioneers  in  the  entire 
movement.  Their  reports  from  month  to  month  and 
year  to  year  emphasize  again  and  again  the  defects  and 
shortcomings  characteristic  of  even  a  satisfactorily  devel- 
oping situation.  The  high  schools  are  rarely  full-grown; 
many  of  them  are  meagre;  many  of  them  have  shot  up 
almost  too  rapidly  and  must  fill  out  in  the  coming  years. 
Separate  buildings  are  still  relatively  rare;  a  numerous, 
stable,  and  properly  qualified  teaching  and  supervising 
profession  has  yet  to  be  created,  even  though  a  beginning 
has  been  made. 

It  is  unnecessary  in  a  volume  of  this  kind  to  attempt  an 
exhaustive  discussion  of  even  the  more  urgent  high  school 
problems  with  which  the  secondary  school  representa- 
tives are  now  dealing.  But  one  or  two  may  be  singled 
out,  on  account  of  their  more  than  local  interest :  and  in 
the  very  first  place,  the  question  of  the  high  school  cur- 
riculum. 


Knoxville  City  High  School,  Tenn. 


Young  High  School,   Knox  County,   used  as  a  model  for  rural  high 
schools  now  building  in  Tennessee. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  95 

THE   HIGH    SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 

At  the  outset,  the  course  of  study  of  the  newly  estab- 
lished high  school  naturally  follows  conventional  lines; 
this  is  indeed  at  once  the  easiest  and  the  cheapest  thing 
to  do.  The  close  relationship  of  the  high  school  to  the 
state  university  rather  accentuates  this  tendency.  For 
the  university  begins  by  formulating  its  entrance  require- 
ments in  terms  of  the  traditional  cultural  subjects.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  extent  to  which  the  people  have  di- 
rectly participated  in  demanding  and  paying  for  the  new 
Southern  high  schools  was  bound  to  emphasize  another 
aspect  of  high  school  usefulness.  The  Southern  people 
want  high  schools  not  only  as  cultural  luxuries,  but  as 
aids  in  the  solution  of  political,  social,  and  economic 
difficulties.  The  most  casual  visitor  in  the  South  must 
indeed  be  impressed  by  the  well-nigh  universal  recogni- 
tion there  of  the  existence  of  problems  bequeathed  to  the 
present  and  to  succeeding  generations  by  the  collapse 
of  the  ancient  social  and  economic  regime.  The  South 
has  been  convinced  that  education  alone  can  hope  to 
achieve  any  kind  of  solution.  Graded  schools,  high 
schools,  and  state  universities  have  been  supported  with 
increasing  interest  and  liberality  on  the  basis  of  this 
newly  acquired  faith. 

The  high  school  curriculum  must  under  these  circum- 
stances face  both  ways,  whether  its  pupils  subsequently 
attend  college  or  not.  It  must  make  an  immediate  re- 
sponse to  present  local  needs,  whatever  they  are.  It 


96    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

must,  on  the  other  hand,  be  calculated  to  widen  the  scope 
of  its  pupils,  to  create  fresh  intellectual  and  spiritual 
needs  not  at  the  moment  acutely  felt.  These  two  objects 
are  not  mutually  repugnant  to  each  other;  indeed,  the 
first  is  one  of  the  conditions  on  which  the  development  of 
the  second  depends.  If  the  Southern  school  man  has 
often  been  militantly  aggressive  in  his  criticism  of  the 
old-fashioned  literary  or  academic  course  of  study,  it  does 
not  mean  that  he  sees  no  good  in  it;  he  has  only  wanted  to 
put  it  in  its  proper  place,  to  deprive  it  of  its  monopoly, 
to  make  room  for  other  types  of  wholesome  activity,  and 
to  pay  proper  regard  to  the  large  numbers  who  never  go  to 
college.  In  every  Southern  state  the  high  school  cur- 
riculum has  thus  been  thoroughly  ventilated  in  the  last 
few  years;  and  with  already  noticeable  results.  At 
formal  and  informal  gatherings  efforts  have  been  made 
to  reach  some  agreement  as  to  why  this  or  that  subject 
should  be  taught,  how,  and  how  much.  The  cause  of  the 
new  interests — agriculture,  domestic  art,  business  meth- 
ods— has  been  discussed  earnestly  and  effectively.  "The 
discussions  revolved  around  the  present  course  of  study," 
writes  one  of  the  men  at  the  beginning  of  his  service, 
"an  inelastic,  hidebound  thing,  well  enough  adapted  to 
the  making  of  preachers,  lawyers,  and  doctors,  provided 
boys  are  so  inclined,  but  wholly  unfit  for  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  in  a  practical  way.  As  the  representative 
of  the  State  Department  of  Education  I  plead  with  all 
my  might  for  the  formulation  and  adoption  of  a  new 
course  of  study  in  which  agriculture,  home  economics,  and 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  97 

kindred  topics  should  hold  the  central  place.  As  a 
result,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  such  a 
course  and  to  report  to  the  next  meeting." 

The  soundness  of  this  point  of  view  at  this  moment  is 
now  generally  conceded  by  Southern  educators.  Ten- 
nessee has  therefore  wisely  decided  to  duplicate  out  of  the 
State  Fund  all  local  appropriations  for  the  teaching 
of  agriculture,  domestic  science,  and  manual  training  up 
to  $1,500  annually;  Virginia  appropriated,  in  1908, 
$20,000  for  agricultural  and  manual  training  departments 
in  ten  high  schools,  and  two  years  later  doubled  the  sum. 
North  Carolina  encourages  farm-life  schools  and  farm- 
life  departments  in  high  schools,  the  state  and  county 
each  contributing  $2,500  a  year  for  support.  Georgia 
has  created  eleven  district  agricultural  high  schools,  each 
enjoying  an  annual  appropriation  of  $10,000;  toward 
these  the  counties  have  contributed  $830,000.  Of  the 
county  agricultural  high  schools,  those  of  Mississippi 
may  be  taken  as  excellent  examples.  Generally  speaking, 
these  schools,  co-educational  in  character,  are  aiming  to 
train  intelligent  farmers  and  farmers'  wives.  They  have 
been  built  with  distinct  reference  to  the  state's  need.  They 
are  country-life  schools  in  an  environment  where  the  rural 
problem  is  vast,  promising,  and  as  yet  hardly  touched. 
The  course  of  study  covers  four  years;  every  boy  pursues 
agriculture,  every  girl  home  economics,  through  the  entire 
curriculum.  Biology,  applied  physics  and  chemistry,  sani- 
tation and  hygiene,  tool  and  bench  work ,  blacksmithing,  and 
the  usual  English  branches  complete  the  course  of  study. 


98    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

These  and  other  high  schools  are  likely  to  become 
centres  for  many  of  the  forces  now  stirring  in  rural  life. 
The  farm  demonstration  work  may  be  connected  with 
them;  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  are  so  connected  already. 
To  helpful  work  of  the  demonstration  type  there  need 
be  no  arbitrary  limit.  A  resourceful  teacher  of  domestic 
science  in  one  of  them  immediately  perceived  that  the 
type  of  domestic  science  which  she  had  pursued  at 
college  was  not  adapted  to  this  environment.  She  vis- 
ited homes  throughout  the  county  in  order  to  formulate 
her  local  problem.  On  the  basis  of  that  experience  her 
girls  have  been  trained  to  attend  the  sick  with  care  and 
intelligence,  and  to  bathe,  dress,  and  prepare  food  and 
clothing  for  an  infant.  "I  observed, "  she  said,  "that  the 
rural  sick  suffer  less  from  disease  than  from  discomfort, 
and  that  the  babies  of  the  county  need  clean  and  in- 
telligent management."  Nor  does  it  follow  that  educa- 
tion must  be  mean,  unimaginative,  lacking  in  ideal 
content,  simply  because  it  is  mindful  of  such  humble  and 
vital  necessities. 

COLLEGE    RELATIONSHIP 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  at  the  outset 
the  university  and  college  influence  made  for  a  narrow 
course  of  study  and  so  hampered  the  responsiveness  of  the 
high  school  to  immediate  needs.  This  has  largely  ceased 
to  be  the  case,  the  colleges  showing  more  and  more  dis- 
position to  enlarge  the  basis  of  matriculation.  A  very 
acute  problem  in  respect  to  college  and  high  school  rela- 


New  building,  District  High  School,  East  Bank,  Kanawha  County,  W.  Va. 


New  District  Graded  and  High  School,  Princeton,  W .  Va. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  99 

tionship  nevertheless  remains.  The  South,  like  the  coun- 
try at  large,  maintains  an  excessive  number  of  collegiate 
institutions;  at  the  same  time  Southern  high  schools,  as  the 
figures  above  given  show,  are  still  graduating  a  relatively 
small  number  of  fully  trained  pupils.  If  the  Southern 
colleges  all  supported  the  high  school  movement  and 
refused  to  receive  students  who  had  not  passed  satis- 
factorily through  the  local  high  schools,  many  of  them 
would  be  without  students;  if  the  colleges  are  bent  upon 
surviving,  not  a  few  of  them  must  compete  with  the  high 
schools  for  students.  The  more  important  institutions 
in  every  state  have,  generally  speaking,  cordially  co- 
operated in  reaching  an  understanding  on  this  point. 
Conferences  have  been  held  and  resolutions  adopted  con- 
demning the  practice  of  receiving  students  into  college 
before  they  have  finished  the  high  school  courses  at  their 
home  schools.  State  Associations  of  Colleges  have  been 
formed  to  safeguard  this  policy.  As  soon  as  the  situa- 
tion permitted — sometimes  even  earlier— they  clarified 
and  raised  their  entrance  requirements  in  order  to  effect 
a  close  and  real  articulation  with  the  new  high  schools. 
But  the  institutions  that  have  not  pursued  this  policy, 
and  that  can  pursue  it  only  if  they  are  willing  to  subor- 
dinate themselves  to  the  general  educational  good,  con- 
stitute a  serious  difficulty.  They  exist  in  every  state. 
Especial  efforts  to  procure  and  publish  the  facts  have, 
however,  been  made  in  South  Carolina.  "Unless  the 
territory  of  the  high  school  and  that  of  the  college  be 
clearly  differentiated,  and  at  the  same  time  contiguous/' 


ioo         THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

writes  the  secondary  school  representative  in  1910, 
•'these  institutions  will  be  continually  trespassing  upon 
each  other's  territory."  Annually  since  that  time  the 
bulletins  of  the  University  of  South  Carolina  publish 
a  list  of  college  students  "untimely  ripped"  by  the 
colleges  of  the  state  from  the  high  schools  where  they 
should  have  remained  a  year  or  two  longer.  In  1910, 
''out  of  more  than  200  pupils  reported  by  the  high  schools 
as  having  left  before  completing  the  courses  offered, 
82  entered  colleges."  In  subsequent  years  the  matter  is 
pursued  in  even  greater  detail,  the  name  of  the  pupil 
and  his  high  school  standing,  together  with  the  name  of 
the  college  and  the  class  to  which  he  (or  she)  was  admitted, 
being  printed.  The  argument  has  been  pressed  with 
vigor  and  ingenuity.  "More  than  one  half  the  high 
school  communities  of  the  state  are  impoverishing  their 
own  high  schools  by  taking  their  sons  and  daughters 
away  and  sending  them  to  college  at  a  heavier  expense 
than  the  entire  high  school  at  home.  It  is  strange  that  a 
man  of  ordinary  business  sagacity  will  take  his  child  out 
of  the  high  school,  where  it  costs  him  not  exceeding  $25 
a  year,  and  send  him  off  to  college  to  do  the  same  work 
at  a  cost  of  $250."  Again:  " Colleges  do  not  hesitate 
to  take  pupils  from  different  classes  in  the  same  high 
school  and  put  them  into  the  same  college  class.  In 
several  colleges,  first-year,  second-year,  and  third-year 
high  school  pupils  are  side  by  side  in  the  freshman  class." 
Efforts  to  complete  the  high  school  course  are  thus  de- 
feated: "We  had  to  give  up  our  eleventh  grade;  the 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  101 

colleges  have  broken  it  up,"  writes  one  principal.  "Our 
eleventh  grade  is  very  small;  two  colleges  robbed  us  of  our 
tenth  grade  pupils  during  my  summer  vacation,"  writes 
another.  It  is  needless  to  quote  further  illustrations;  but 
the  problem  must  be  borne  in  mind,  for  we  shall  return 
to  it  in  considering  the  policy  of  the  General  Education 
Board  in  dealing  with  colleges  and  universities.1 

HIGH    SCHOOL    CONSOLIDATION 

There  can,  of  course,  be  too  many  high  schools,  pre- 
cisely as  there  are  too  many  colleges.  The  consolidation 
of  district  into  town  or  county  high  schools  must  there- 
fore be  an  object  steadily  kept  in  mind.  As  soon  as  high 
school  classes  begin  to  multiply  in  scattered  elementary 
schools,  a  campaign  to  concentrate  the  high  school  grades 
into  a  centrally  located  high  school  is  in  order.  The 
teaching  of  high  school  subjects  in  one-teacher  rural 
schools  is  still  widely  permitted,  and  with  woful  results. 
Hence,  it  is  important  to  beware  of  excessive  emphasis  on 
the  increased  number  of  high  schools ;  from  time  to  time  a 
fall  in  numbers  would  be  more  truly  indicative  of  health. 
Laurens  County,  S.  C.,  for  example,  supported  at  a  total 
cost  of  less  than  $11,000  eight  state  aided  high  schools  in 
1910,  with  fourteen  full-time  teachers,  and  338  pupils; 
yet  not  one  boasted  a  fourth  year.  The  substitution  of  a 
county  for  a  district  system  would  facilitate  a  process  of 
consolidation  through  which  two  or  three  good  and  com- 
plete schools  would  supplant  thrice  the  number  of  feeble 

JSee  pp.  109-1 10. 


102    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

ones.  This  policy  has  indeed  been  pursued  in  the  newer 
states.  Colorado,  with  three  times  the  territory  of 
South  Carolina,  and  4,000  more  high  school  pupils  in 
1910,  had  90  high  schools  as  against  South  Carolina's  156. 
Other  difficulties  attendant  on  a  new  and  rapid  educa- 
tional development  need  not  detain  us  now.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  more  and  better  buildings,  more  and 
better  equipment,  above  all,  more  and  better  teachers, 
are  needed.  Emulation  will  in  time  supply  the  buildings 
and  equipment.  Efforts  have  from  the  outset  been  made 
to  improve  the  present  body  of  teachers,  by  normal  train- 
ing, by  teachers'  institutes,  by  summer  schools,  bulletins, 
and  by  special  classes  at  the  state  universities  and  normal 
schools.  A  new  agency,  of  whose  beneficent  influence 
high  hopes  are  entertained,  is  the  George  Peabody  Col- 
lege for  Teachers  at  Nashville,  which  promises  to  address 
itself  soberly  and  intelligently  both  to  improving  the 
present  profession  and  to  training  a  new  and  better  one.1 
1  At  its  first  summer  school,  just  held,  the  attendance  was  over  1,200. 


V.    COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES 

THE  situation  in  the  United  States  in  respect  to  the 
establishment  and  management  of  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning  is  unique.  The  universities 
of  continental  Europe  are  governmental  institutions,  sup- 
ported by  governmental  appropriations  and  conducted 
by  a  department  presided  over  by  a  cabinet  minister. 
The  contribution  of  private  individuals  or  private  organ- 
izations and  associations  in  the  way  of  gifts  or  even  coun- 
sel is  negligibly  small.  In  England,  ancient  corporations 
furnished  for  centuries  such  facilities  as  existed  for  higher 
education;  latterly,  flourishing  municipalities  have  be- 
stirred themselves  with  notable  results  in  the  establish- 
ment of  universities,  the  resources  of  which  have  been 
supplemented  by  grants  in  aid  made  by  the  national 
government. 

THE   AMERICAN   SYSTEM 

Our  American  system  is  much  more  complicated. 
Neither  the  national  government  nor  any  one  of  the 
states  has  accepted  the  responsibility  of  providing  ade- 
quately for  higher  education.  Some  of  the  states  do 
little  in  this  direction,  leaving  practically  the  whole  field 
to  private  initiative;  even  those  states  that  maintain 
universities  have  never  proposed  to  dispense  with  pri- 

103 


io4        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

vately  endowed  and  managed  institutions;  the  general 
government  has  limited  itself  to  the  making  of  appro- 
priations to  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  with- 
out, however,  supervising  the  expenditure  of  the  funds 
thus  contributed. 

Generally  speaking,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  that  in 
the  United  States  there  is  a  wide-open  door  in  so  far  as 
higher  education  is  concerned.  Individuals  and  organ- 
izations are  free  to  establish  and  support  institutions  of 
higher  learning,  and  it  is  expected  that  they  will  do  so. 
This  expectation  has  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  been  dis- 
appointed. In  the  first  place,  religious  bodies  have 
plentifully  planted  colleges  and  universities,  in  order  to 
protect  their  several  denominations  and  to  secure  a  com- 
petently educated  ministry.  From  these  foundations, 
ecclesiastical  in  origin,  many  of  the  strongest  and  broad- 
est of  our  higher  institutions  have  developed  in  a  com- 
paratively  brief  space  of  time.  Again,  a  majority  of  the 
states  themselves  have  created  universities  by  way  of 
rounding  out  their  several  public  school  systems.  Finally, 
a  small  number  of  strong  institutions,  independent  alike 
of  religious  denominations  and  the  several  states,  have 
been  endowed  by  single  individuals. 

ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES 

Our  easy-going  treatment  of  this  important  matter  has 
developed  many  advantages.  People  at  large  have 
been  made  to  feel  responsible  for  their  own  higher  educa- 
tion, with  the  result  that  nowhere  else  in  the  world  does 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  105 

so  much  popular  interest  in  higher  education  exist.  An 
enormous  amount  of  energy  has  been  thus  liberated;  and 
sacrifice  for  ideal  educational  ends — a  rare  phenomenon 
in  the  rest  of  the  world — has  become  usual  in  America. 

It  would,  however,  be  idle  to  deny  that  very  grave 
evils  have  also  resulted.  If  only  some  general  concep- 
tion or  purpose  could  from  the  outset  have  controlled  the 
planting  and  development  of  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, all  might  have  been  well.  But  no  such  ideal  has  at 
any  time  dominated  or  even  greatly  influenced  the  course 
of  events.  Political,  local,  denominational,  and  purely 
personal  factors  have  too  often  proved  determinative. 
Waste  and  confusion  have  been  the  consequence.  States 
that  might  have  developed  a  strong  and  symmetrical 
university  as  the  crown  of  a  public  school  system  have 
often  either  multiplied  institutions  or  split  up  the  univer- 
sity into  several  fragments  so  distributed  as  to  placate 
political  sentiment;  rival  religious  bodies  have  invaded 
fields  fully — or  more  than  fully — occupied  already;  mis- 
guided individuals  have  founded  a  new  college  instead 
of  strengthening  an  old  one.  Thus  institutions  have 
been  born  which  could  not  possibly  grow  up — superfluous 
institutions  that  interfere  seriously  with  the  nutrition 
of  those  really  needed. 

GOVERNMENT  CONTROL 

A  problem  that  gravely  concerns  both  the  states  and 
the  nation  results;  for  on  the  efficient  organization  of 
higher  education  depends  not  only  the  highest  culture 


io6   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

of  certain  selected  individuals,  but  the  vigor  and  effective- 
ness of  the  primary  and  secondary  school  systems  as  well. 
The  facts  brought  out  in  considering  secondary  education 
in  the  South — facts  that  can  be  more  or  less  paralleled 
in  other  sections  of  the  country — amply  sustain  this 
view.  On  the  terms  upon  which  the  colleges  admit 
students  the  quality  and  performance  of  the  schools  to  a 
large  extent  depend.  Moreover,  the  colleges  train  the 
men  and  women  who  teach  in  the  lower  schools;  the  com- 
petency of  the  colleges,  therefore,  determines  the  quality 
and  performance  of  the  schools. 

There  is  no  indication  that  in  the  near  future  either 
state  or  national  government  will  fearlessly  endeavor  to 
bring  order  out  of  the  chaos  just  described;  our  "open- 
door"  tradition  is  too  deeply  rooted;  too  many  vested 
interests  have  been  created;  too  many  incidental  issues 
are  involved.  Best  of  all,  too  much  that  is  admirable 
has  come  to  pass  under  our  present  methods.  The  condi- 
tions that  produced  Harvard,  Williams,  Johns  Hopkins, 
the  University  of  Chicago,  and  half  a  hundred  other 
well-established  institutions  of  learning,  are  not  to  be 
lightly  discarded.  More  especially  in  these  days  of  large 
fortunes,  nothing  must  be  done  to  deprive  private  in- 
itiative of  incentive  and  opportunity,  or — more  than  all 
— actual  responsibility.  It  is  therefore  not  probable 
that  the  several  states  will  soon  utilize  their  authority  to 
regulate  the  founding,  development,  and  conduct  of  col- 
leges and  universities.  Thus  far,  only  a  single  state  has 
created  a  department  of  education  armed  with  anything 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  107 

approaching  adequate  powers;  and  in  this  instance  it 
has  been  found  that  these  powers  must  be  employed  with 
the  utmost  circumspection.  To  state  action,  even  in  the 
form  of  control,  there  is,  in  any  event,  always  the  objec- 
tion that  it  tends  to  decreased  flexibility,  thus  lessening 
experimental  activity  and  innovation  amidst  changing 
social  conditions  that  cry  aloud  for  both.  Finally, 
whatever  may  be  the  case  hereafter,  up  to  this  time  the 
states  have  not  generally  shown  themselves  competent 
to  deal  with  higher  education  on  a  non-partisan,  imper- 
sonal, and  comprehensive  basis. 

SCOPE   FOR  PRIVATE   INITIATIVE 

If  private  initiative  can  enjoy  such  immense  creative 
opportunities  in  higher  education,  is  it  not  conceivable 
that  its  collected  experience  may  be  brought  to  bear  on 
the  very  problems  that  these  same  opportunities  create? 
The  field  is  rich  and  diverse;  it  contains  state  institutions, 
private  institutions,  and  denominational  institutions.  Can 
not  the  responsible  heads  of  such  institutions,  represent- 
ing the  widest  contemporary  experience  and  the  soundest 
contemporary  judgment,  be  brought  to  reflect  on  the  con- 
ditions in  which  they  all  find  themselves?  An  organiza- 
tion of  this  type  represents  another  step  in  the  evolution 
of  private  initiative — the  effort,  in  other  words,  of  free- 
dom to  control  and  guide  itself.  Such  an  organization 
would  have  no  authority.  It  could,  at  most,  hope  to  at- 
tain influence ;  and  the  extent  of  its  influence  would  in  the 
long  run  depend  altogether  on  its  helpfulness.  A  varied 


io8    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

membership  would  tend  to  eliminate  irrelevant  consider- 
ations and  to  make  for  the  prevalence  of  broad  views  of 
educational  policy.  The  presence  of  a  strong  lay  ele- 
ment in  its  composition  would  tend  to  keep  it  respon- 
sive to  public  as  well  as  to  professional  opinion.  In  a 
word,  a  body  of  this  kind  might  hope  to  remedy  some  of 
the  defects  attending  unhampered  individual  initiative 
by  utilizing  private  initiative  and  its  experience  in  another 
fashion. 

THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

In  respect  to  higher  education,  the  General  Education 
Board  has  sought  to  be  useful  to  the  academic  depart- 
ments of  colleges  and  universities l  in  this  way.  Accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  Mr.  Rockefeller's  second  gift,  the 
Board  was  to  assist  "such  institutions  of  learning  as  the 
Board  may  deem  best  adapted  to  promote  a  comprehen- 
sive system  of  higher  education  in  the  United  States." 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  amount  of  money  appropri- 
ated and  the  amount  of  attention  bestowed,  this  has  indeed 
been  the  most  important  of  the  Board's  activities.  The 
general  situation  to  be  dealt  with  was  already  well  under- 
stood. But  systematic  studies  were  at  once  undertaken 
for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  details  in  so  far  as  col- 
leges and  universities  were  concerned.  Efforts  were 
made  to  ascertain  the  number  of  institutions  of  higher 
learning  in  the  country,  the  purposes  for  which,  and  the 


1  The  Board  has  as  yet  made  no  appropriations  to  professional  depart- 
ments, except  medicine:  See  pp.  166-172.  A  single  appropriation  has 
been  made  to  a  technological  institute,  viz.,  $250,000  to  the  Stevens  In- 
stitute of  Technology. 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  109 

agencies  through  which,  they  had  been  chartered,  their 
location,  their  resources,  their  possible  sources  of  strength, 
and,  with  the  utmost  particularity,  their 'relations  to  their 
respective  communities,  educationally  and  otherwise. 

NUMBER    AND    CHARACTER    OF    COLLEGES 
AND    UNIVERSITIES 

Exclusive  of  technical  institutions,  there  were  in  1902 
something  like  700  institutions  in  the  United  States  call- 
ing themselves  colleges  or  universities.  The  geographical 
distribution  of  687  of  these  is  indicated  on  the  accompany- 
ing map  (Figure  10).  A  glance  is  enough  to  show  the 
absurdity  of  the  situation.  Institutions  in  such  numbers 
cannot  be  supported,  cannot  be  manned,  cannot  pro- 
cure qualified  students.  The  State  of  Ohio,  with  a  total 
population  of  4,767,121,  contains  over  40  so-called 
colleges  and  universities,  almost  twice  as  many  as  the 
entire  German  Empire,  with  a  population  of  64,903,423; 
Missouri  (population  3,293,335)  contains  34,  Pennsyl- 
vania (population  7,665,111)  contains  41,  Tennessee 
(population  2,184,789)  contains  29,  Maryland  (popula- 
tion 1,295,346)  contains  20,  Iowa  (population  2,224,771) 
contains  32;  other  states  are  in  substantially  the  same 
position. 

An  examination  of  the  scope  and  facilities  of  the  above- 
mentioned  institutions  proved  that  many  of  them  were 
hardly  more  than  secondary  schools,  not  always  good 
secondary  schools  at  that;  and  that  others  offered  only 
one  or  two  years  of  college  work.  Only  a  minority  were 


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COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  in 

rightly  called  college  or  university.  A  small  number 
articulated  definitely  with  the  secondary  schools  of  their 
respective  states;  not  a  few,  however,  competed  with  the 
secondary  schools,  "robbing  local  high  schools  of  their 
pupils,"  as  we  have  already  learned.  Very  few  were 
found  to  confine  themselves  to  such  work  as  they  were 
equipped  to  do,  or  to  work  for  which  need  and  oppor- 
tunity existed.  Imitation  had  led  some  of  the  better  to 
cherish  unwarranted  academic  ambitions;  well-nigh  all 
were  dangerously,  and  many  were  fatally,  extended.  It 
has  been  pointed  out  that  no  general  design  had  con- 
trolled their  location  or  establishment;  harmonious  rela- 
tions did  not  even  exist  between  institutions  established 
under  the  same  auspices — whether  state  or  denomi- 
national; larger  cooperation  between  all  the  institutions 
of  a  given  state  had  not  yet  been  thought  of.  Local, 
institutional,  or  denominational  pride,  vanity,  or  self- 
interest,  propped  up  tottering,  feeble,  or  superfluous  in- 
stitutions, some  of  them  established  in  this  or  that  state 
or  county  for  no  better  reason  than  that  a  small  town 
wanted  one,  or  a  rival  denomination  already  had  one. 
Of  course  worthier  motives  in  abundance  also  played 
their  part.  Many  of  these  schools,  seriously  defective 
according  to  modern  ideas,  had  done  good  work  under  the 
pioneer  conditions  that  have  only  lately  passed  away; 
splendid  devotion  and  self-sacrifice  had  gone  into 
their  making,  and  their  graduates  had  been  important 
factors  in  the  development  of  their  respective  communi- 
ties. 


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COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  113 

FINANCIAL   SITUATION 

Meanwhile,  whatever  their  origin  and  tradition,  in- 
stitutions were — and  still  are — generally  suffering  from 
the  pressure  of  need.  Financial  strength  and  security 
are  indeed  far  rarer  than  is  commonly  believed.  In  the 
accompanying  series  of  maps  an  effort  is  made  to  portray 
the  existing  situation.1  Only  twenty-five  institutions 
of  higher  learning  located  in  seventeen  different  states 
(Figure  1 1)  enjoy  total  annual  incomes  from  all  sources 
— endowment,  tuition,  fees,  etc. — of  $500,000  or  more. 
If  this  is  regarded  as  too  severe  a  criterion,  assuredly  a 
total  annual  income  from  all  sources  of  $200,000  will  in 
these  days  sustain  only  a  modest  university:  forty 
states  contain  about  eighty-five  institutions  receiving 
that  amount  or  more  annually  (Figure  12).  The  time 
is  fast  approaching,  if  indeed  it  is  not  already  here, 
when  it  will  be  conceded  to  be  impossible  for  an  aca- 
demic institution  to  do  justice  to  its  students  on  a 
total  income  from  all  sources  of  less  than  $100,000  a 
year:  considerably  less  than  one  fourth  of  our  colleges 
and  universities  (one  hundred  and  forty  or  thereabouts) 
now  enjoy  an  income  of  that  size  (Figure  13).  A  very 
large  number  of  institutions,  some  of  them  doing  well, 
though  clearly  showing  the  strain,  operate  with  an 
annual  budget  between  $50,000  and  $100.000  (Figure 
14).  One  hundred  and  seventy-six  have  to  live  on 


'Based  on  statistics  given  in  the  Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of 
Education,  1913. 


Loc 


u6   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

$25,000  a  year  or  less — an  absolutely  impossible  under- 
taking, if  efficiency  is  to  be  secured  (Figure  15).  On 
this  showing  the  necessity  of  strengthening  colleges 
and  universities  on  the  financial  side  and  of  concentrating 
aid  on  those  upon  which  the  main  burden  falls  is  obvi- 
ous. 

POLICY   OF   THE   BOARD 

Whatever  policy  the  Board  might  elect  to  pursue,  two 
preliminary  decisions  were  reached,  neither  of  which  has 
ever  been  departed  from,  either  in  letter  or  in  spirit. 
The  Board  had  no  authority,  and  desired  no  authority; 
and  its  membership  must  be  its  sole  title  to  influence. 
It  was  therefore  resolved  to  put  no  pressure,  direct  or 
indirect,  upon  any  college  or  university  with  a  view  to 
influencing  its  course  of  action;  it  was  resolved  that  in 
making  appropriations  the  Board  would  in  no  wise  inter- 
fere with  the  internal  management  of  an  institution,  and 
would  incur  absolutely  no  responsibility  for  its  conduct 
in  any  respect.  Informal  discussion  and  conversation 
between  the  officers  of  the  Board  and  college  or  univer- 
sity representatives  have  been,  indeed,  frequent,  but  the 
unanimous  testimony  of  those  participating  declares 
that  the  spirit  of  the  above-mentioned  decisions  has 
never  been  infringed.  The  General  Education  Board 
has  left  to  the  discretion  of  every  institution  with  which 
it  has  in  any  way  had  relations  complete  power  to  shape 
its  own  course,  externally  and  internally.  It  has  held 
that  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  must  in  the  end 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  119 

work  out  their  own  salvation,  and  that  they  are  most 
likely  to  do  this  effectually  if  they  are  comfortable 
financially. 

LAWS   OF  COLLEGE   GROWTH 

(a)  Importance  of  Location 

In  the  selection  of  institutions  to  be  assisted,  the 
Board  has  been  guided  by  what  appear  to  be  the  laws  of 
college  growth,  as  revealed  by  the  experience  of  a  century. 
The  student  of  college  development  is  struck  at  the  outset 
by  the  fact  that  the  subject  must  be  approached,  not  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  Union  as  a  whole,  but  from  that  of 
the  several  states.  Education  is,  in  the  United  States,  a 
state  function,  precisely  as  it  is  in  the  various  federated 
states  abroad.1  We  can  have  only  such  a  national  system 
as  results  from  adding  together  the  separate  state  sys- 
tems. Moreover,  state  lines  have  always  counted  heavily 
in  determining  the  area  of  college  or  university  influence. 
The  state  line  is  a  formidable  barrier.  The  circle  from 
which  a  college  chiefly  obtains  its  students  is  rarely 
two  hundred  miles,  and  usually  not  over  one  hundred  in 
diameter.  If  we  draw  circles  around  each  American  col- 
lege fifty  and  one  hundred  miles  from  its  halls,  and  trace 
every  student  to  his  home,  we  shall  most  frequently  find 
the  homes  of  the  majority  within  these  circles.  Almost 
invariably  the  homes  will  be  thick  about  the  base  of  the 
institution,  thinning  out  with  distance.  This  marked 
tendency  is  equally  strong  in  all  sections  of  the  country. 

•For  example,  in  the  German  Empire,  Austria-Hungary,  etc. 


Figure  16. 


Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100  miles  and 
enrolled  in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  four  colleges. 

(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of   50  miles;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles) 

NAMES   OF   INSTITUTIONS 

Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick,  Me. 
The  University  of  Rochester,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
Swarthmore  College,  Swarthmore,  Pa. 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  121 

Figure  16,  for  example,  takes  at  random  four  represen- 
tative colleges  in  the  North  Atlantic  region.  From  a 
semicircle — the  other  half  of  the  circle  falls  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean — with  a  radius  of  fifty  miles,  Bowdoin  draws 
48  per  cent,  of  its  regular  undergraduate  body;  from 
little  more  than  a  semicircle,  with  a  radius  of  one  hun- 
dred miles,  it  draws  65  per  cent.  Union,  Swarthmore  and 
Rochester  obtain  respectively  48  per  cent.,  64  per  cent., 
and  87  per  cent,  from  within  fifty  miles;  61  per  cent.,  79 
per  cent.,  and  93  per  cent,  from  within  one  hundred  miles. 
In  the  case  of  Rochester,  nearly  one  half  the  circle  is  cut 
off  by  Lake  Ontario,  but  the  local  percentage  is  raised  by 
the  inclusion  of  women  students,  who  necessarily  come 
from  Rochester  only,  since  there  are  no  dormitories  for 
the  accommodation  of  those  from  a  distance. 

In  the  South  Atlantic  section,  three  institutions 
(Figure  17),  similarly  chosen,  sustain,  on  the  whole,  the 
same  principle.  One  half  the  students  of  Richmond 
College  live  fifty  miles  or  less  from  the  college;  a  trifle 
less  than  three  fourths,  one  hundred  miles  or  less.  Fur- 
man  University  derives  60  per  cent,  of  its  students  from 
the  smaller  area,  72  per  cent,  from  the  greater.  Trjnity 
College,  getting  only  35  per  cent,  of  its  students  from 
within  fifty  miles  and  61  per  cent,  from  within  one  hundred 
miles,  is  a  partial  exception,  only  because  the  State  Uni- 
versity and  Wake  Forest  College,  being  so  near  by,  drain 
the  same  area. 

Vanderbilt  University,  Hendrix  and  Millsaps  Colleges 
(Figure  18)  in  the  South  Central  section,  practically 


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Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100  miles 
and  enrolled  in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  three  colleges. 
(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of  50  miles;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles) 

NAMES  OF   INSTITUTIONS 

Richmond  College,  Richmond,  Va. 
Trinity  College,  Durham,  N.  C. 
Furman  University,  Greenville,  S.  C, 


I24         THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

conform  to  the  same  rule,  with  48  per  cent.,  45  per  cent., 
and  49  per  cent.,  respectively,  of  their  students  coming 
less  than  fifty  miles,  and  54  per  cent.,  68  per  cent.,  and  80 
per  cent,  coming  one  hundred  miles  or  less.  Baylor 
University,  located  in  the  centre  of  an  immense  and 
thinly  settled  country,  might  be  expected  to  draw  less 
heavily  on  its  immediate  environment;  yet  56  per  cent, 
of  its  students  reside  within  the  one  hundred  mile  circle. 

The  North  Central  section  illustrates  the  same  ten- 
dency. Beloit  and  Grinnell  Colleges  and  Baker  Univer- 
sity (Figure  19)  draw  approximately  one  half  their  regular 
undergraduate  body  from  the  smaller  of  the  two  circles 
we  are  considering,  and  from  two  thirds  to  three  fourths 
of  them  from  the  larger.  Marietta,  by  reason  probably 
of  its  close  proximity  to  important  West  Virginia  towns, 
draws  over  three  fourths  from  the  fifty  mile  area,  and 
almost  nine  tenths  from  the  one  hundred  mile  area. 

The  extreme  West  is  no  exception.  WTiitman  and 
Colorado  Colleges  (Figure  20)  agree  in  obtaining  44  per 
cent,  within  the  fifty  mile  radius;  the  former  obtains  50 
percent,,  the  latter  62  per  cent.,  within  one  hundred  miles 
Pomona  College,  despite  the  fact  that  a  considerable 
slice  is  cut  off  the  circle  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  obtains 
most  of  its  students  (80  per  cent.)  from  its  immediate 
vicinity;  less  than  1.5  per  cent,  travel  over  one  hundred 
miles.  This  extraordinarily  high  percentage  is  perhaps 
due  to  the  fact  that  many  families  settle  close  to  the 
college  so  as  thus  to  obtain  both  climatic  and  educational 
advantages. 


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Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100 
miles  and  enrolled  in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  three  colleges 

(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of  50  miles;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles). 

NAMES  OF  INSTITUTIONS 

Whitman  College,  Walla  Walla,  Wash. 
Colorado  College,  Colorado  Springs,  Col. 
Pomona  College,  Claremont,  Cal. 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  127 

The  importance  of  an  institution,  the  need  for  its 
development,  can  therefore — other  things  being  equal 
—be  gauged  by  the  possibilities  of  its  immediate 
environment.  Of  what  sort  of  field  is  it  the  centre?  Is 
there  promise  of  growth  in  population  and  wealth?  These 
are  the  first  questions  to  be  put  in  attempting  to  define 
the  present  and  future  value  of  an  institution  "in  a  com- 
prehensive system  of  higher  education."  They  are  not,  of 
course,  the  only  questions;  under  certain  circumstances 
they  may  not  be  the  most  important  questions.  As  the 
Board's  influence  tends  to  assist  in  reshaping  conditions 
that  have  come  about  for  historical  and  other  reasons, 
simple  schematic  procedure  is  impossible;  but  it  remains 
true,  none  the  less,  that  location  in  a  promising  environ- 
ment constitutes  strong  initial  presumption  of  usefulness, 
while  location  in  an  unpromising  environment  is  apt  to 
prove  a  serious  handicap. 

Even  a  few  miles  may  make  a  profound  difference.  A 
city  is  a  more  hopeful  site  than  an  adjoining  suburb. 
Northwestern  University  at  Evanston  and  Lake  Forest 
College  at  Lake  Forest,  111.,  are  both  on  the  outskirts 
of  Chicago;  valuable  as  their  work  has  been,  they  have 
not  drawn  large  numbers  of  undergraduate  students  from 
the  city  of  Chicago.  The  University  of  Chicago  was 
located  in  the  city,  and  has  rapidly  enrolled  a  numerous 
undergraduate  body.  Western  Reserve  College,  removed 
from  Hudson  to  Cleveland,  has  developed  notably  in 
size  and  strength. 

Exceptions,  of  course,  at  once  leap  to  mind:  Dartmouth, 


Figure  21. 


Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100  miles  and 
enrolled  in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  Amherst  College,  Amherst,  Mass. 

(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of  50  miles;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles) 


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130        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

Williams,  Amherst,  and  others.  These  institutions,  es- 
tablished before  the  growth  of  great  cities  with  the  in- 
dustrial and  social  changes  implied  therein,  had  already 
acquired  sufficient  momentum  to  defy  the  tendency  under 
discussion,,  They  have  strong  support  in  a  numerous, 
prosperous  body  of  alumni,  and  rich  historical,  local,  and 
personal  associations,  making  their  future  alike  useful  and 
secure.  Nevertheless,  it  is  important  not  to  magnify  the 
extent  to  which  even  they  are  exceptions  to  the  general 
rule.  None  of  them  are  really  national  in  scope.  While 
Amherst  College,  for  example  (Figures  21,  22),  draws 
less  than  one  fifth  of  its  students  from  the  fifty  mile 
circle,  over  40  per  cent,  come  from  the  one  hundred  mile 
circle,  and  92  per  cent,  from  the  region  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  north  of  the  Ohio.  The  reach  of  Williams 
College  (Figures  23,  24)  is  somewhat  larger:  only  14  per 
cent,  come  from  th.e  smaller  area,  only  23  per  cent,  from 
the  larger;  but  94  per  cent,  live  east  of  the  Mississippi 
and  north  of  the  Ohio.  Of  the  regular  undergraduate 
body  of  Harvard  College  (Figure  25)  57  per  cent,  come 
from  three  fourths  of  a  circle  with  a  radius  of  fifty  miles ; 
6 1  per  cent,  from  somewhat  less  than  a  semicircle  having 
a  radius  of  one  hundred  miles.  The  comparatively  small 
size  of  New  Haven  reduces  Yale's  draft  (Figure  26)  on 
the  fifty  mile  area  to  23  per  cent. ;  but  47  per  cent,  live 
within  one  hundred  miles. 

The  colleges  for  women  belong  to  this  category.  The 
first  foundations  of  this  kind  obtained  relatively  wide 
fame  as  innovations  and  naturally  drew  ambitious  girls 


Figure  23. 


Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  en- 
rolled in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  Williams  College,  Williamstown,  Mass. 

(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of  50  miles;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles) 


, 

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COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  133 

from  all  sections.  Moreover,  these  institutions  have 
never  been  so  numerous  that  the  demand  for  higher  edu- 
cation on  the  part  of  women  could  be  as  a  rule  locally 
satisfied.  Nevertheless,  the  one  hundred  mile  limit 
takes  in  a  substantial  portion  of  the  attendance  and  only 
a  small  percentage  come  from  remote  regions.  Smith 
College,  for  instance  (Figures  27,  28),  draws  14  and  35  per 
cent,  respectively,  from  fifty  and  one  hundred  miles,  86 
per  cent,  from  the  larger  field  east  of  the  Mississippi  and 
north  of  the  Ohio.  Vassar  (Figures  29, 30),  drawing  9  per 
cent,  from  the  fifty  mile  limit,  42  per  cent,  from  one  hun- 
dred miles,  and  86  per  cent,  from  the  territory  east  of  the 
Mississippi  and  north  of  the  Ohio,  is  similar  to  Smith. 

It  is  clear  then  that  the  geographical  factor  is  always 
powerful,  even  though  not  infrequently  offset  to  greater 
or  less  extent  by  historical  or  other  considerations. 
Institutions  which  have  thus  made  themselves  effective 
over  an  unusually  wide  territory  are  obviously  to  be  re- 
garded as  permanent  and  important  factors  in  our 
educational  development,  precisely  as  in  Germany  the 
universities  of  Tubingen  and  Greifswald  have  more  than 
triumphed  over  a  disadvantageous  location.  Never- 
theless, such  institutions  constitute  no  conclusive  prec- 
edent for  present-day  action.  Our  college  planning,  in^ 
so  far  as  it  endeavors  to  develop  institutions  that  have 
not  yet  attained  full  power,  must  give  great  weight  to  the 
consideration  that  the  modern  university  thrives  and  is 
most  useful  in  close  association  with  population,  industry, 
and  wealth. 


Figure  25. 


Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100  miles  and 

enrolled  in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of  50  miles;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles) 


Figure  26 


Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  en- 
rolled in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of  50  miles;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles) 


136        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

We  shall  see  in  a  moment  that  this  is  a  fact,  vouched 
for  by  experience,  even  were  it  a  matter  to  be  deplored. 
But  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  a  rural  location  has  to-day 
any  substantial  advantages  at  all  over  an  urban  location. 
The  village  or  the  wilderness  was  suitable  to  the  college 
student,  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age  at  matricu- 
lation and  hardly  more  than  sixteen  at  graduation,  whose 
instruction  was  confined  to  ancient  languages,  the  ele- 
ments of  mathematics,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy.  To- 
day the  college  student  is  on  the  verge  of  manhood;  the 
college  curriculum  endeavors  to  include  not  only  the 
treasures  of  historic  culture,  but  the  activities  and  ideals 
of  contemporary  life.  From  these  points  of  view,  the 
opportunities,  influences,  perhaps  even  the  restraints, 
surrounding  the  student  in  a  city  of  fifty  or  one  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants  may  well  be  superior  to  the  influ- 
ences in  the  country  college  situated  in  a  little  village 
which  the  students  dominate. 

LARGE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  COLLEGES  LOCATED  IN  CITIES 

Of  the  hundreds  of  colleges  and  universities  struggling 
for  existence  at  the  time  the  General  Education  Board 
was  established,  thirty-four,  privately  founded,  had  en- 
dowments valued  at  $$00,000  or  more.  Of  these  thirty- 
four,  twenty-three  were  located  in  cities  and  growing 
towns.  The  eleven  situated  less  favorably  had  $13,000,000 
in  endowment,  and  less  than  6,000  students;  the  twenty- 
three  more  favorably  situated  had  $72,000,000  of  endow- 
ment, and  almost  36,000  students. 


Figure  27. 


Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  en- 
rolled in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass. 

(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of  50  mites;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles) 


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COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  139 

Moved,  therefore,  by  the  foregoing  facts  and  consider- 
ations, the  General  Education  Board  has  by  preference 
selected  for  assistance  institutions  situated  within  a  field 
where  students  could  be  easily  procured,  where  the  foster- 
ing care  of  a  prosperous  community  could  be  counted  on, 
where  an  appetite  for  knowledge  and  culture  could  be 
readily  stimulated  and  gratified.  At  the  same  time  it 
has  not  passed  by  older  institutions,  otherwise  located. 

(6)  Denominational  Institutions 

A  second  factor  of  immense  importance,  particularly 
in  the  early  days  of  development,  is  the  relationship  of 
the  college  to  a  religious  denomination.  It  has  been  al- 
ready pointed  out  that  religious  bodies  have  very  un- 
wisely over-multiplied  colleges,  thus  scattering  students 
and  resources.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  en- 
titled to  the  credit  of  having  founded  and  maintained 
most  of  our  really  substantial  private  foundations. 
Their  loyalty  has  as  a  rule  not  ceased  even  where  the 
denominational  relationship  no  longer  holds.  Yale, 
founded  and  long  controlled  by  Congregationalists,  is 
still  their  pride,  even  though  in  scope  and  ideal  it  has 
little  in  common  with  the  small  college  established  to 
provide  an  educated  ministry  for  the  denomination; 
Princeton  owes  as  much  to  Presby terianism ;  Brown  to 
the  Baptists.  Of  the  newer  colleges  and  universities 
out  of  which  the  future  Harvards,  Yales,  Princetons, 
and  Browns  must  come,  most  of  them  are  of  denomi- 
national origin,  and  most  are  still  the  objects  of  denomi- 


Map  showing  the  percentage  of  students  coming  from  within  50  and  100  miles  and  en- 
rolled in  the  four  regular  college  classes  of  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 

(The  inner  circle  has  a  radius  of  50  miles;  the  outer  circle  a  radius  of  100  miles) 


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142    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

national  care.  An  effort  to  develop  a  system  of  higher 
education  in  the  United  States  requires,  therefore,  con- 
stant and  sympathetic  cooperation  with  denominational 
organizations;  only  thus  can  certain  promising  institu- 
tions be  aided;  only  thus  can  a  movement  toward  con- 
centration of  denominational  effort  be  promoted. 

(c)  Importance  of  Increasing  Endowments 

It  was  tentatively  estimated  that  an  efficient  college 
should  enjoy  an  income  from  endowment  covering  from 
40  to  60  per  cent,  of  its  annual  expenditure.  Moreover, 
the  expense  of  conducting  colleges  and  universities  is 
bound  to  increase  with  the  cost  of  living,  the  competition 
for  trained  teachers,  the  enlargement  of  the  boundaries 
of  knowledge,  and  the  increase  of  specialization.  In  order 
that  they  may  obtain  and  retain  competent  teachers, 
the  colleges  must  be  financially  strong  and  secure.  Sup- 
port by  fees  and  by  contributions  to  meet  current  ex- 
pense is  too  precarious  to  sustain  the  elaborate  organi- 
zation of  a  modern  institution  of  learning.  It  was  de- 
cided, therefore,  that  the  gifts  of  the  General  Education 
Board  should  be  made  to  endowment  and  on  such  terms 
as  were  calculated  to  draw  further  funds  to  the  selected 
institutions  and  arouse  other  interests  in  them.  There 
was  the  further  consideration  that  buildings,  grounds,  ap- 
paratus, and  scholarships  can  all  be  more  readily  obtained 
through  gifts  than  can  the  endowment  necessary  to  meet 
the  expenditure  they  entail. 

The  three  main  features  of  the  policy  of  the  General 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  143 

Education  Board  in  dealing  with  higher  education  may 
therefore  be  expressed  as  follows: 

(1)  Preference  for  centres  of  wealth  and  population  as 
the  pivots  of  the  system; 

(2)  Systematic  and  helpful  cooperation  with  religious 
denominations ; 

(3)  Concentration  of  gifts  in  the  form  of  endowment. 

APPROPRIATIONS    TO   COLLEGES   AND   UNIVERSITIES 

Up  to  June  30, 1914,  the  General  Education  Board  made 
contributions  to  103  colleges  and  universities;  to  nineteen 
of  these  it  has  made  a  second  appropriation.  The  sums 
pledged  by  the  Board  amount  to  $10,582.591.80;  the 
institutions  assisted  have  themselves  undertaken  to 
raise  additional  sums  aggregating  almost  $40,000,000. 
Through  the  cooperation  of  the  General  Education  Board, 
therefore,  $50,000,000  will  shortly  have  been  added  to 
college  and  university  resources.  Nor  does  this  sum 
represent  the  full  outcome  of  the  Board's  work  in  this 
direction,  for  it  does  not  include  bequests  written  into 
the  wills  of  those  whose  interest  in  a  particular  institu- 
tion was  first  aroused  or  much  deepened  by  campaigns 
undertaken  to  increase  endowment.  The  Board  has 
been  assured  that  very  considerable  sums  have  thus 
been  obtained.  A  recent  report  received  from  institu- 
tions which  have  been  assisted  discloses  the  fact  that  the 
total  increase  in  the  endowment  of  colleges  to  which  the 
Board  has  made  pledges,  determined  as  from  the  dates  of 
the  several  pledges,  is  already  $20,760,292.  The  total 


144   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

cost  of  new  buildings  for  the  same  period  is  $6,302,953. 
A  list  of  the  institutions  with  the  sums  raised  is  given 
below.1  The  following  map  (Figure  31)  shows  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  the  institutions  to  which  appro- 
priations have  been  made. 

It  will  have  been  remarked  that  the  gifts  of  the  Gen- 
eral Education  Board  to  colleges  and  universities  are 
invariably  part  only  of  the  sum  which  the  institutions 
in  question  have  undertaken  to  raise.  It  should,  however, 
be  stated  that  this  does  not  mean  that  the  General  Edu- 
cation Board  requires  an  institution  to  raise  any  par- 
ticular sum  or  to  raise  money  in  any  particular  way. 
Quite  the  contrary  is  the  case.  Not  the  Board,  but  the 
institution,  takes  the  initiative,  by  communicating  to  the 
Board  its  intention  to  undertake  the  raising  of  a  certain 
sum,  toward  which  a  contribution  is  requested  from  the 
General  Education  Board.  In  giving,  the  Board  is 
therefore  in  the  same  position  as  every  other  contribu- 
tor; all  alike  subscribe  specified  sums  toward  a  speci- 
fied total;  all  are  therefore  conditional  givers.  The 
General  Education  Board  appears  to  stand  out  from 
the  others,  not  because  its  offer  is  any  more  conditional, 
but  simply  because  it  is  usually  the  largest  single  con- 
tributor. 

Conditional  giving  is  justified  by  its  fruits.  Let  us 
recall  for  a  moment  what  has  been  previously  stated  in 
respect  to  the  founding  and  support  of  higher  institutions 
of  learning  in  the  United  States.  They  derive  their 

Jpp.  155-0. 


o 


146    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

funds  largely  from  private  donors;  in  so  far,  their  secur- 
ity and  growth  depend  on  their  possessing  a  wide  circle 
of  devoted  friends.  Moreover,  the  sudden  increase  in 
the  cost  of  conducting  higher  education,  due  to  the  quick 
development  of  laboratories,  research,  libraries,  etc., 
required  that  this  circle  of  devoted  friends  be  very  rapidly 
enlarged.  More  persons  had  to  be  interested  on  short 
notice,  and  they  had  to  be  trained  at  once  to  give  more 
generously.  Modest  unconditioned  gifts  might  indeed 
prove  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  help.  A  new  building 
presented  without  an  increase  of  endowment  sufficient 
to  carry  the  additional  expense  incurred  in  running  it; 
an  endowed  professorship  unaccompanied  by  increased 
general  funds;  a  new  campus  without  further  unencum- 
bered funds  with  which  to  develop  and  care  for  it —  these 
and  other  unconditioned  benefactions  tend  to  embarrass, 
not  to  assist,  a  university.  Conditional  giving  means, 
therefore,  that  when  an  institution  undertakes  to  raise 
money  for  expansion,  it  has  calculated  what  it  needs  in 
order,  not  only  to  make,  but  to  support,  a  progressive 
step.  To  this  end  every  giver  increases  the  leverage 
by  means  of  which  the  required  total  may  be  collected ; 
every  giver  accepts  a  certain — not  infrequently  a  large — 
responsibility  for  the  future  of  the  institution.  It  may 
not  be  amiss  to  add  in  this  connection  that,  in  founding 
the  University  of  Chicago,  Mr.  Rockefeller  acted  upon 
the  principle  just  elucidated.  In  making  his  final  gift 
of  $10,000,000  to  this  institution  (December  13,  1910)  he 
stated  his  conviction  that  "it  is  far  better  that  the  uni- 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  147 

versity  be  supported  and  enlarged  by  the  gifts  of  many 
than  by  those  of  a  single  donor.  I  have  accordingly 
sought  to  assist  you  in  enlisting  the  interest  and  securing 
the  contributions  of  many  others." 

It  happens,  of  course,  very  often  that  the  General 
Education  Board  is  unable  to  see  its  way  clear  to  making 
contributions  that  have  been  requested.  It  is  believed 
that  adverse  decisions  of  this  kind  have  as  a  rule  been 
satisfactorily  explained  to  the  applicants,  so  that,  even 
if  the  reasons  may  not  be  concurred  in,  the  disinterested 
desire  of  the  Board  to  do  justice  has  not  been  questioned. 
Decisions  of  this  kind  may  be  based  on  one  or  more  of 
several  reasons:  the  Board  may  have  already  contributed 
more  than  a  fair  share  to  the  section  represented;  the 
institution  may  occupy  a  more  or  less  unpromising  sit- 
uation; it  may  be  in  too  close  proximity  to  a  stronger  in- 
stitution; it  may  be  without  backing;  it  may  be  one  of 
several  denominational  institutions  which  ought  to  be 
merged  rather  than  separately  developed.  Some  of 
these  schools  may  at  the  moment  be  performing  a  useful 
function;  yet  unless  they  appear  to  be  necessary  factors 
in  a  well  organized  and  well  distributed  permanent  sys- 
tem of  higher  education,  the  General  Education  Board  is 
compelled  to  pass  them  by. 

COLLEGE   FINANCE 

As  the  General  Education  Board  has  undertaken  to 
render  financial  assistance,  special  attention  has  been 
paid  in  the  study  of  institutions  to  their  business  meth- 


148   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

ods.  As  a  business  organization,  alive  to  the  dangers 
which  attend  large  enterprises,  the  Board  has  taken 
care  to  aid  institutions  in  safeguarding  their  property. 
The  Board  was  indeed  bound  to  exercise  as  much  care 
in  the  distribution  of  its  income  as  in  making  investment 
of  its  principal.  For  this  reason,  the  business  manage- 
ment of  colleges  applying  for  contributions  has  been  care- 
fully scrutinized  with  a  view  to  suggesting  such  improve- 
ments as  might  be  advisable. 

At  first,  request  was  made  for  the  report  of  the  treas- 
urer of  the  college.  Sometimes  this  was  sent  in  printed 
form,  but  more  often,  especially  by  the  smaller  colleges, 
in  manuscript  form.  A  few  of  these  financial  statements 
received  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  Board  were  in  ex- 
cellent form,  and  the  information  desired  was  easily 
obtained  from  the  official  document.  More  frequently, 
however,  the  statement  was  incomplete  and  confused. 
The  essential  facts  about  which  information  was  wanted 
could  not  be  gathered  from  the  report.  Furthermore, 
there  was  no  uniformity  of  statement  among  the  many 
colleges  reporting,  so  that  comparative  presentation  of 
facts  regarding  several  colleges  was  impossible.  The 
varied  systems  of  accounting  employed  rendered  it 
practically  impossible  to  secure  a  correct  comparative 
statement  of  any  item  of  college  finance.  It  became 
necessary,  therefore,  to  prepare  a  set  of  questions  and 
to  ask  the  colleges  applying  for  aid  to  cast  their  accounts 
in  forms  provided  by  the  office  of  the  General  Education 
Board.  These  forms  provided  for  sharp  distinction  in 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  149 

matters  that  were  essentially  different,  and  denned  terms 
so  as  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  any  one  as  to  their 
precise  meaning.  These  blanks  were  sent  freely  to  all  who 
asked  for  them,  and  they  have  contributed  toward  re- 
shaping the  financial  methods  of  many  institutions.  It 
may  be  interesting,  as  a  matter  of  record,  to  mention  some 
of  the  particulars  wherein  the  Board  has  been  helpful  to 
colleges  in  improving  the  management  of  their  finances. 

IMPROVEMENTS   SECURED 

(a)  More  Careful  Accounting 

The  call  for  accurate  and  complete  financial  statistics 
has  resulted  in  the  more  careful  keeping  of  records. 
Originally,  many,  particularly  the  smaller,  colleges  had 
no  organized  bookkeeping  staff.  One  college  was  dis- 
covered which  had  no  record  of  bonds  given  for  endow- 
ment, except  the  envelope  in  which  they  were  placed. 
In  another  instance  gifts  had  been  received  through  a 
series  of  years  and  no  record  of  the  amounts  or  the  pur- 
poses for  which  the  gifts  were  made  had  been  kept.  The 
only  thing  known  by  the  college  when  the  inquiry  was 
made  was  that  at  that  time  they  had  such  and  such  secur- 
ities. Colleges  have  found  it  necessary  to  examine  files 
of  years'  accumulation,  to  search  records  of  church  or- 
ganizations, to  appeal  to  the  memory  of  "the  oldest  in- 
habitant "  and  to  resort  to  every  known  method  of  getting 
information,  and  then  have  been  obliged  to  report  that  the 
statements  submitted  were  only  approximately  correct. 
All  this  is  being  changed.  Bookkeepers  are  being  installed ; 


150        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

a  thoroughgoing  system  of  bookkeeping  established;  a 
complete  system  of  vouchers  adopted;  an  annual  auditing 
of  accounts  required  by  the  trustees,  as  well  as  the  issuing 
of  financial  reports  to  boards  of  trustees  and  to  others. 

(b)  Definition  of  Terms 

A  few  words  have  found  their  way  into  college  finance 
which  have  been  freely  used  without  clear  or  definite 
meaning.  To  one,  they  have  meant  this,  to  another, 
that.  Among  them  are  the  following:  "equipment," 
"scientific  equipment,"  "capital,"  "endowment,"  "in- 
come," "investments."  Early  in  the  history  of  the 
Board  it  became  clear  that  before  accurate  statements, 
particularly  comparative  statements,  could  be  made, 
words  must  be  defined.  For  example,  what  is  "en- 
dowment?" Reports  made  to  other  agencies  than  the 
General  Education  Board  showed  that  all  sorts  of  prop- 
erty were  being  reported  as  "endowment,"  the  word 
being  so  freely  and  loosely  used  by  colleges  in  reporting 
that  published  statistics  were  valueless.  So  indiscrimi- 
nate were  the  returns  under  this  heading  that  summaries 
made  on  the  basis  of  these  reports  frequently  included 
the  same  item  twice  and  sometimes  actually  included 
liabilities.  "Investments"  has  been  as  loosely  used. 
Not  infrequently  subscription  notes  and  even  verbal 
promises  to  make  gifts  have  been  reported  as  "invest- 
ment" or  "endowment."  One  college  officer  astonished 
the  office  by  making  a  report  which  was  very  flattering, 
and  when  questioned  more  closely  confessed  that  the 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  151 

amount  reported  was  what  "he  hoped  to  have!"  A 
persistent  attempt  has  been  made  by  the  officers  in 
charge  to  define  terms  and  to  secure  the  use  of  terms  in 
their  exact  meaning  so  that,  for  example,  when  the  word 
"endowment"  was  used  it  would  not  be  interpreted  to 
mean  college  buildings,  or  subscription  notes  of  doubtful 
value,  or  good-will  on  the  part  of  some  one  who  might  or 
might  not  remember  the  institution  in  his  will.  A 
sharp  distinction  has  been  insisted  on  as  between  capital 
and  current  funds.  Colleges  have  been  found  which 
were  in  the  field  collecting  funds  ostensibly  for  endow- 
ment or  for  building  purposes,  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
all  receipts  were  poured  into  one  account  from  which 
current  expenses  were  being  met  without  discrimination 
as  to  the  source  of  supply. 

(c}  Endowment  Funds  to  Be  Kept  Intact 

All  colleges  with  which  the  Board  has  cooperated  have 
already  been  in  possession  of  trust  funds.  But  it  has 
been  discovered  that  not  infrequently  such  trust  funds 
have  been  depleted.  The  Board  of  Trustees  of  a  college, 
being  hard  pressed  to  meet  current  expenses,  has  re- 
sorted to  the  fiction  of  "borrowing"  from  permanent 
funds  to  tide  the  college  over  a  time  of  stress;  occasionally 
a  "note"  is  given  to  cover  the  "loan."  The  relief  may 
not  have  come  as  anticipated  and  the  "borrowed"  money 
frequently  has  not  been  returned  to  the  trust  fund. 
Whenever  this  state  of  affairs  has  been  found,  the  General 
Education  Board  has  insisted  upon  the  restoration  of  such 


152    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

trust  funds  before  making  payments  on  its  pledge.  It  has 
also  stipulated  that  the  money  contributed  by  the  General 
Education  Board  "shall  be  invested  and  preserved  in- 
violably for  the  endowment"  of  the  institution.  The 
Board  has  received  many  assurances  from  colleges  that  in 
the  future  trust  funds  will  be  more  strictly  regarded  and 
that  under  no  circumstances  will  encroachment  upon  per- 
manent funds  to  meet  current  expenses  be  allowed.  The 
Board  has  thus  been  made  to  believe  that,  apart  from 
rendering  direct  aid  to  colleges,  it  has  been  of  service  in 
throwing  safeguards  about  funds  contributed  by  others. 

(d)  Educational  and  Business  Budgets 

A  distinction  has  been  made  between  an  educational 
budget  and  affairs  of  a  business  or  a  semi-business  nature 
conducted  in  connection  with  a  college.  Certain  colleges, 
particularly  colleges  for  women,  maintain  boarding  de- 
partments, for  example.  Early  records  show  that  it  has 
been  customary  for  many  colleges  to  include  gross  re- 
ceipts from  the  boarding  department  as  "college  re- 
ceipts." This  custom  not  only  made  comparison  of  these 
colleges  impracticable  with  colleges  reporting  no  such 
gross  receipts,  but  it  rendered  impossible  the  making  of  a 
strictly  educational  budget.  In  the  blank  forms  above 
referred  to,  which  have  been  furnished  to  colleges  making 
reports  to  the  office  of  the  General  Education  Board, 
provision  is  made  for  the  segregation  of  all  accounts  of  a 
business  or  semi-business  nature,  thus  permitting  a  clear 
statement  of  annual  receipts  and  expenditures  for  educa- 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  153 

tional  purposes.  College  officials  have  reported  to  the 
office  that  this  insistence  upon  segregation  of  strictly 
educational  matters  from  business  affairs  has  been  help- 
ful, not  only  in  preparing  the  educational  budget,  but  also 
in  determining  the  profit  or  loss  of  the  business  conducted. 

(e)  Differentiation  of  Departments 

As  the  General  Education  Board  has  been  devoting 
its  attention  to  the  development  of  a  limited  number  of 
colleges  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  its  officers  have  sought 
to  learn  the  facts  specifically  regarding  the  college  depart- 
ment of  the  institution.  In  the  earlier  dealings  of  the 
Board  with  colleges  it  found  few  institutions  maintaining 
preparatory  departments  which  knew  the  comparative  ex- 
pense of  the  collegiate  and  preparatory  departments.  The 
accounts  were  inextricably  mixed.  A  radical  change  has 
been  made  in  the  method  of  accounting  so  that  now  all 
the  better  institutions  are  able  to  determine  the  exact 
financial  status  of  their  several  departments.  The  ten- 
dency has  been  not  only  to  draw  a  clear  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  the  finances  of  the  college  and  the  academy, 
but  to  separate  the  two  parts  educationally  or  to  dis- 
continue the  secondary  work  altogether.  The  very  word 
"  college"  has  come  to  have  a  new  meaning  in  consequence 
of  a  better  system  of  accounting. 

EFFECT   OF    BOARD'S   CONTRIBUTIONS 

Many  years  must  necessarily  elapse  before  the  main 
task  in  which  the  General  Education  Board  is  assisting 


i54   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

can  be  even  approximately  completed.  Meanwhile, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  any  one  familiar 
with  the  facts  that  the  growing  recognition  of  the  im- 
portance of  conceiving  the  higher  education  of  the  coun- 
try, from  the  standpoint  of  a  system  of  parts  mutually 
related  by  the  voluntary  efforts  of  those  interested,  is 
proof  of  the  soundness  of  the  conception  which  led  to  the 
creation  of  the  Board.  Nor  has  the  activity  of  the  Board 
cost  institutions  anything  in  the  way  of  freedom  to  meet 
their  own  problems  in  their  own  way.  On  this  point 
expressions  are  too  many  and  too  sincere  to  leave  any 
doubt  whatsoever.  The  very  opposite,  indeed,  has  hap- 
pened. The  gifts  of  the  General  Education  Board  have 
been  the  means  of  arousing  new  effort.  "The  offer  of  the 
General  Education  Board  proved  to  be  the  culmination 
of  a  series  of  events  which  caused  the  friends  of  the  col- 
lege to  rally  to  the  institution  in  a  campaign  for  addi- 
tional endowment  as  nothing  else  could  have  done," 
writes  the  president  of  one  institution.  "Under  the 
stimulus  of  your  pledge,"  wrote  another,  "a  local  move- 
ment was  begun,  local  resources  were  developed,  alumni 
and  friends  were  aroused,  and  we  secured  not  only  a 
million  dollars,  but  twenty-five  hundred  investors  in  our 
educational  enterprise,  many  of  whom  had  never  before 
contributed  to  the  support  of  an  American  university." 
In  one  instance,  the  only  endowed  college  in  a  Southern 
state,  "struggling  against  almost  insuperable  obstacles," 
was  saved  from  destruction  and  has  now  $300,000  safely 
invested;  in  another — this  one  of  the  strongest  institu- 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES 


tions  of  the  land — the  Board's  appropriation  was  the 
initial  help  in  obtaining  land,  buildings,  and  endowment 
for  a  set  of  adequate  university  laboratories.  In  repeated 
instances,  debts  have  been  paid,  salaries  increased,  new 
departments  created,  and  more  teachers  supplied  in  con- 
sequence of  the  increased  resources  toward  which  the 
Board's  gifts  served  as  an  almost  indispensable  leverage. 
An  institution's  usefulness  grows  with  its  financial 
strength.  The  canvass  for  funds  itself  attracts  students 
by  making  it  better  known;  increased  resources  mean 
larger  and  more  varied  facilities,  through  which,  of 
course,  more  students  are  more  efficiently  trained.  The 
rapid  increase  in  university  attendance  has  forced  the 
raising  of  larger  sums;  the  raising  of  these  sums  has  re- 
acted on  and  increased  attendance.  If  colleges  and  uni- 
versities are  to  be  thus  popularly  fostered  and  sustained, 
the  work  of  the  General  Education  Board  may  be  fairly 
said  to  have  made  these  institutions  the  more  secure  to 
the  extent  that  it  has  increased  the  number  of  those  who 
have  a  stake  in  them. 

TOTAL  SUBSCRIPTIONS  TO  COLLEGES  BY  THE  GENERAL 
EDUCATION  BOARD 


Sumn 
Appropriations 
of  Board 

lary 
Entire  Sum  to 
Be  Raised 

To  Southern  States      
"  Western  States         
"  Eastern  and  Middle  States 

$3,052,625 
3,967,781 
3,562,185 

$12,199,677 
19,374,522 
18,810,124 

$10,582,591 

$50,384,323 

156        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 


SUBSCRIPTIONS  TO  COLLEGES  BY  SECTIONS 


SOUTHERN  STATES 
Total  Appropriation     .    $3,052,625        Toward 


.     $12,199,677 


Subscribed 
by  G.E.B. 

Supplemental 
Sum 

TOTAL 

Maryland—  $250,000 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

$250,000 

$750,000 

$1,000,000 

Virginia—  $490,000  .     .     . 

Emory  and  Henry  College 

50,000 

200,OOO 

250,000 

Randolph-Macon    College* 

6o,OOO 

130,000 

I9O,OOO 

Randolph-Macon  Woman's 

College      

75,000 

175,000 

25O,OOO 

Richmond  College   . 

150,000 

350,000 

50O,OOO 

University  of  Virginia  . 

50,000 

450,000 

5OO,OOO 

Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 

versity*      

105,000 

445,000 

550,000 

North  Carolina—  $379,416 

Davidson  College     . 

75,000 

225,000 

30O,OOO 

Meredith  College     . 

50,000 

100,000 

I5O,OOO 

Salem  Academy  and  College 

75,000 

225,000 

300,000 

Trinity  College  .... 

150,000 

850,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

Wake  Forest  College     . 

29,416 

88,248 

117,664 

South  Carolina—  $154,176 

Converse  College 

$50,000 

$100,000 

$150,000 

Furman  University* 

50,000 

250,000 

3OO,OOO 

Wofford  College*            .      . 

54,176 

1  5^704 

205,880 

Georgia—  $232,333 

Agnes  Scott  College 

100,000 

250,000 

350,000 

Mercer  University    . 

32,333 

97,000 

129,333 

Wesleyan  Female  College   . 

100,000 

200,000 

3oo,ooT 

Alabama—  $21,700 

Howard  College  .... 

21,700 

65,100 

86,800 

Mississippi  —  $150,000 

Millsaps  College 

25,000 

75,000 

100,000 

Mississippi  College  . 

125,000 

275,000 

400,000 

Arkansas—  $175,000 

Hendrix  College* 

175,000 

525,000 

700,000 

•  Two  appropriations  made. 


COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES 

SOUTHERN  STATES— Continued 


157 


Subscribed 

Supplemental 

by  G.E.  B, 

Sum 

TOTAL 

Tennessee—  $625,000 

George  Peabody  College  for 

Teachers    

250,000 

75O,OOO 

I,OOO,OOO 

Maryville  College     . 

50,000 

150,000 

2OO,OOO 

Union  University 

25,000 

75,OOO 

IOO,OOO 

University  of  Chattanooga 

150,000 

350,000 

5OO,OOO 

Vanderbilt  University 

150,000 

150,000 

3OO,OOO 

Kentucky—  $125,000 

Georgetown  College 

$25,000 

$75,000 

$IOO,OOO 

Transylvania  University 

50,000 

150,000 

2OO,OOO 

.    Williamsburg  Institute  . 

50,000 

170,000 

22O,OOO 

Texas—  $400,000 

Baylor  University    . 

2OO,OOO 

400,000 

6OO,OOO 

Southern    Methodist  Uni- 

versity       .                       . 

200,000 

800,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

Florida—  $50,000 

John  B.  Stetson  University 

50,000 

100,000 

I5O,OOO 

$3,052,625 

$9,147,052 

$12,199,677 

WESTERN  STATES 
Total  Appropriations   .    $3,967,781        Toward 


•     $19,374,522 


Subscribed 
by  G.  E.  B. 

Supplemental 
Sum 

TOTAL 

Ohio—  $760,000 

Marietta  College 

$6o,OOO 

$240,000 

$3OO,OOO 

Oberlin  College  .... 

125,000 

375,ooo 

500,000 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University  . 

125,000 

375,000 

5OO,OOO 

University  of  Wooster* 

275,000 

825,000 

I,IOO,OOO 

Western  College  for  Women 

50,000 

200,000 

25O,OOO 

Western  Reserve  University 

125,000 

375,ooo 

5OO,OOO 

Indiana—  $230,160 

DePauw  University 

IOO,OOO 

400,000 

5OO,OOO 

Earlham  College 

30,76l 

133,300 

164,061 

Franklin  College 

49,399 

214,063 

263,462 

Wabash  College 

50,000 

150,000 

200,OOO 

*Two  appropriations  made. 


WESTERN  STATES— Continued 


Subscribed 

Supplemental 

by  G.  E.  B. 

Sum 

TOTAL 

Michigan—  $16,106 

Kalamazoo  College  . 

16,106 

48,318 

64,424 

Illinois—  $300,000 

Knox  College*    .... 

150,000 

600,000 

750,000 

Lake  Forest  College 

50,000 

350,000 

4OO,OOO 

Northwestern  University     . 

100,000 

900,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

Wisconsin—  $290,000 

Beloit  College*    .... 

$150,000 

$550,000 

$7OO,OOO 

Lawrence  College*  . 

90,000 

310,000 

4OO,OOO 

Ripon  College     .... 

50,000 

200,000 

25O,OOO 

Minnesota  —  $350,000 

College  of  St.  Thomas  . 

75,000 

225,000 

3OO,OOO 

Carleton  College 

100,000 

500,000 

6OO,OOO 

Hamline  University 

50,000 

150,000 

2OO,OOO 

Macalester  College* 

125,000 

575,000 

7OO,000 

Iowa—  $596,515 

Coe  College*       .... 

146,515 

586,060 

732,575 

Cornell  College  .... 

100,000 

300,000 

4OO,OOO 

Drake  University 

100,000 

300,000 

4OO,OOO 

Grinnell  College* 

200,000 

700,000 

9OO,OOO 

Morningside  College 

50,000 

150,000 

2OO,OOO 

Colorado—  $200,000 

Colorado  College*     . 

100,000 

700,000 

8OO,OOO 

The  University  of  Denver  . 

100,000 

300,000 

40O,OOO 

Kansas—  $275,000 

Ottawa  University    . 

25,000 

75,000 

IOO,OOO 

Washburn  College*  . 

125,000 

475,000 

6OO,OOO 

Baker  University 

125,000 

375,ooo 

5OO,OOO 

Missouri  —  $525,000 

Drury  College*   .... 

$125,000 

$525,000 

$65O,OOO 

Washington  University 

200,000 

800,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

William  Jewell  College  . 

125,000 

375,ooo 

5OO,OOO 

Central  College  .... 

75,000 

225,000 

3OO,OOO 

South  Dakota—  $150,000 

Dakota  Wesleyan  University 

50,000 

200,000 

250,OOO 

Huron  College    .... 

100,000 

400,000 

5OO,OOO 

Washington—  $125,000 

Whitman  College 

125,000 

375,ooo 

5OO,OOO 

Calif  ornia  —  $  1  50,000 

Pomona  College  .... 

150,000 

850,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

$3,967,78i 

$15,406,741 

819,374,522 

*Two  appropriations  made. 
158 


EASTERN  AND  MIDDLE  STATES 
Total  Appropriations  .    $3,562,185       Toward    . 


5,810,124 


Subscribed 

Supplemental 

by  G.  E.  B. 

Sum 

TOTAL 

Maine  —  $50,000 

Bowdoin  College 

$50,000 

$200,000 

$250,000 

Vermont—  $150,000 

Middlebury  College 

50,000 

150,000 

2OO,OOO 

University  of  Vermont 

IOO,OOO 

400,000 

5OO,OOO 

Massachusetts—  $750,000 

Amherst  College 

75,000 

325,000 

4OO,OOO 

Harvard  University 

62,500 

62,500 

I25,OOO 

Mount  Holyoke  College 

100,000 

400,000 

500,000 

Smith  College*    .... 

212,500 

850,000 

I,O62,5OO 

Williams  College 

100,000 

500,000 

6OO,OOO 

Wellesley  College 

200,000 

800,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

Connecticut  —  $400,000 

VVesleyan  University 

100,000 

900,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

Yale  University  .... 

300,000 

1,700,000 

2,OOO,OOO 

New  York—  $955,000 

Hamilton  College     . 

50,000 

150,000 

2OO,OOO 

Elmira  College    .... 

100,000 

200,000 

3OO,OOO 

St.  Lawrence  University 

50,000 

150,000 

2OO,OOO 

Wells  College      .... 

100,000 

400,000 

5OO,OOO 

Union  College*    .... 

175,000 

625,000 

8OO,OOO 

University  of  Rochester*     . 

230,000 

970,000 

I,2OO,OOO 

/  Chamber  of  Com.  of  City  of 

New  York  

50,000 

450,000 

500,000 

Barnard  College 

200.000 

800,000 

I,OOO,OOO 

Pennsylvania  —  $757,74  1 

Allegheny  College*   . 

$150,000 

$550,000 

$7OO,OOO 

Bryn  Mawr  College 

250,000 

380,000 

630,OOO 

Bucknell  University 

35,ooo 

125,000 

l6o,OOO 

Franklin  and  Marshall  Col- 

lege         

50,000 

3O8,  si  2 

•2  ;X  >  I  2 

Lafayette  College 

47,74i 

O         JJ 

381,928 

•JJ^iJ    *    * 

429,669 

Pennsylvania  College 

50,000 

I5O,OOO 

2OO.OOO 

Swarthmore  College 

75,ooo 

425,000 

50O,OOO 

Washington     and   Jefferson 

College       

100,000 

4OO,OOO 

5OO,OOO 

New  Jersey—  $349,444 

Princeton  University 

99,444 

894,999 

994,443 

Stevens  Institute  of  Tech- 

nology   

250,000 

75O,OOO 

I  OOO  OOO 

Rhode  Island—  $150,000 

Brown  University 

100,000 

700,000 

800,000 

Women's  College  in  Brown 

University       .... 

50,000 

ISO.OOO 

200,000 

$3,562,185 

$15,247,939 

£18,810,124 

VI.     MEDICAL  EDUCATION 

THE  activities  described  in  the  preceding  section 
have  been  concerned  only  with  what  is  ordi- 
narily known  as  the  department  or  faculty  of  arts 
and  sciences — the  core  of  the  American  college  or  uni- 
versity.    For  some  years   the  Board  concentrated  its 
attention  on  this  central  feature  of  our  institutions  of 
higher  learning.     Only  within  the  last  year  has  it  under- 
taken to  deal  with  one  of  the  professional  schools,  viz., 
that  of  medicine. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   MEDICAL   EDUCATION   IN   AMERICA 

The  American  medical  school  began  as  a  casual  asso- 
ciation of  local  physicians  lecturing  and  occasionally 
demonstrating  to  a  nondescript  body  of  medical  students. 
Up  to  comparatively  recent  times  the  facilities  were 
of  the  most  meagre  kind.  Laboratories  of  very  un- 
satisfactory character  were  provided  for  anatomy,  chem- 
istry, and  perhaps  pathology;  clinical  opportunities  were 
limited  to  a  precarious  relationship  with  a  private  or 
public  hospital,  the  appointments  to  which  were  made 
on  almost  any  basis  except  education  and  science.  The 
curriculum,  originally  calling  for  the  repetition  of  certain 
courses  of  lectures  during  two  successive  years  was  only 

1 60 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  161 

gradually  and  painfully  lengthened  and  graded.  En- 
trance requirements  there  were  for  years  none  worthy 
the  name.  The  fees  received  for  the  opportunities  just 
described  were  distributed  among  those  participating 
in  the  instruction. 

CHANGES  IN  RECENT  YEARS 

During  the  last  twenty-five  years  these  so-called  pro- 
prietary schools  have  come  to  be  regarded  with  great 
disfavor.  Many  have  closed  their  doors;  signs  of  dis- 
comfort preceding  dissolution  can  be  discerned  in  those 
still  surviving.  These  schools  were  most  numerous 
about  the  year  1906  when  161  medical  schools  were  in 
existence  in  the  United  States;  now,  less  than  a  decade 
later,  this  number  has  decreased  to  about  a  hundred. 
The  process  of  reduction  has  obviously  still  far  to  go;  but 
the  accomplishment  in  this  direction  has  undoubtedly 
been  noteworthy.  Simultaneously,  the  surviving  schools 
have  greatly  improved.  Entrance  requirements  have 
been  formulated  and  somewhat  rapidly  elevated — in 
the  South,  especially,  with  such  excessive  speed  that 
the  better  medical  schools  have  for  the  time  being  lost 
touch  with  the  general  educational  situation.  Tuition 
fees,  instead  of  going  into  the  pockets  of  practitioner 
teachers,  have  been  utilized  to  equip  the  necessary 
fundamental  laboratories,  and  to  pay  for  a  gradually 
increasing  number  of  full-time  teachers;  the  hospital 
relationship  has  been  improved  to  the  extent  that  larger 
freedom  for  teaching  has  been  obtained,  though  the  hos- 


162   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

pital  staff  continues,  in  so  far  as  these  schools  are  con- 
cerned, to  be  appointed  largely  for  other  than  educational 
reasons. 

THE   NEW   TYPE   OF  MEDICAL   SCHOOL 

The  progress  just  sketched  has  been  greatly  influenced 
by  the  outright  creation,  meanwhile,  of  a  new  type  of 
medical  school — a  school  offering  from  the  start,  to 
properly  qualified  students,  a  four  years'  graded 
course,  the  first  two  years  devoted  to  laboratory  subjects 
— anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathology;  the  last  two 
years  devoted  to  clinical  subjects — medicine,  surgery, 
obstetrics,  etc. — all  these  departments  being  organized 
and  equipped  with  education  and  science  prominently 
in  mind.  The  first  and  best  known  of  these  modern 
institutions  was  the  Medical  School  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University  in  Baltimore.  This  institution,  fortunate 
in  its  freedom  from  all  entanglements,  in  its  posses- 
sion of  an  excellent  endowed  hospital,  and  above  all  in 
wise  and  devoted  leadership,  set  a  new  and  stimulating 
example  precisely  when  a  demonstration  of  the  right 
type  was  most  urgently  needed. 

THE   LABORATORY   BRANCHES 

At  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
Medical  School  in  1893,  the  fundamental  laboratory 
branches — anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathology — were 
still  taught  in  even  the  better  medical  schools  then  exist- 
ing by  practising  physicians.  It  is  true  that  at  Harvard 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  163 

the  important  fundamental  subjects  were  already  taught 
by  full-time  men;  and  in  one  or  two  other  institutions 
an  occasional  full-time  teacher  was  to  be  found.  But, 
generally  speaking,  these  instances  were  sporadic.  The 
subjects  were  in  consequence,  as  a  rule,  ill  taught  and 
poorly  developed;  for  the  main  interest  of  most  teachers 
and  their  assistants  was  in  their  private  practice  and  they 
could  give  to  teaching  only  such  time  and  energy  as 
practice  did  not  absorb.  In  the  new  Johns  Hopkins 
School  the  laboratory  sciences  were  from  the  first  placed 
upon  an  unconditioned  university  basis.  They  were 
cultivated  by  "full-time"  teachers  working  under  uni- 
versity conditions  and  working  for  university  rewards, 
such  rewards  being  modest  material,  and  abundant 
spiritual,  satisfactions.  In  the  organization  of  its  labora- 
tory departments,  the  Johns  Hopkins  Medical  School  rec- 
ognized the  contrast  between  an  academic  and  a  worldly 
career.  The  academic  career  must  not  indeed  defeat  its 
own  object  by  requiring  such  renunciations  as  cramp  and 
thwart  development;  but  it  can  never  hope  to  rival  the 
worldly  career  on  the  latter  sown  ground.  It  will  not  yield 
abundant  material  satisfactions;  it  cannot,  as  a  rule,  live 
with  them.  The  laboratory  staff  was  accordingly  com- 
posed of  men  of  modest  income  leading  academic  lives 
devoted  to  teaching  and  research.  It  is  no  exaggeration 
to  say  that  the  few  teachers  who  manned  these  depart- 
ments and  worked  in  this  spirit  revolutionized  within  a 
single  decade  the  status  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and 
pathology  in  America.  Their  pupils  were  soon  sought  as 


1 64   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

teachers  by  other  schools;  nowadays  no  reputable  medi- 
cal school  uses  practitioners  to  teach  these  branches. 
Moreover,  the  work  of  these  men  in  America  and  of  their 
collaborators  in  other  countries  has  provided  a  new 
basis  for  medical  and  surgical  development. 

THE   CLINICAL   BRANCHES 

On  the  clinical  side,  the  establishment  of  the  Johns 
Hopkins  Medical  School  was  marked  by  two  important 
features.  The  first  of  these  was  its  organic  connection 
with  its  own  hospital.  At  that  time,  though  one  or  two 
medical  schools  possessed  small  university  hospitals — 
hospitals,  that  is,  the  staff  of  which  the  school  selected — 
no  such  medical  school  possessed  a  hospital  adequate  in 
size  and  equipment  for  such  teaching  and  research  as 
should  be  prosecuted.  For  the  most  part,  as  has  been 
already  stated,  hospital  relationship  to  medical  schools 
was  casual  or  precarious.  Hospital  trustees  appointed  a 
medical  and  surgical  staff;  and  schools  desiring  hospital 
facilities  had  to  employ  these  men  as  teachers  or  do  with- 
out. In  no  case  did  a  hospital  sufficient  in  size,  well 
supported,  and  well  equipped  for  teaching  and  investiga- 
tion belong  to  an  American  medical  school  prior  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Medical  School. 

The  second  feature  above  alluded  to  was  the  selection 
of  clinical  teachers  on  scientific  grounds.  The  founders 
of  the  Johns  Hopkins  broke  with  precedent  when,  instead 
of  filling  the  clinical  teaching  posts  with  local  practi- 
tioners, as  had  been  and  still  unfortunately  is  the  pre- 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  165 

vailing  custom,  the  clinical  professors  were  called  from 
other  places:  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  elsewhere. 
In  this  way  as  capable  a  staff  as  the  country  afforded  was 
assembled,  and  as  selections  could  be  and  were  made  on 
educational  and  scientific  grounds,  the  country  for  the 
first  time  saw  an  entire  medical  school  organized  on  pre- 
cisely the  same  principles  that  obtained  in  other  uni- 
versity departments. 

Unfortunately,  the  university  lacked  income  enough  to 
pay  its  clinical  teachers  adequately,  even  had  it  desired 
to  do  so.  They  had  to  engage  in  practice.  To  greater  or 
less  extent  clinical  teaching  and  clinical  research  have 
therefore  suffered  from  the  distractions  incident  to  the 
life  of  practitioner  and  consultant.  This  could  not  be 
otherwise.  Clinical  teaching  is  not  easier  than  labora- 
tory teaching:  it  is  more  difficult;  clinical  research  is  not 
easier  than  laboratory  research:  it  is  more  complicated. 
To  conditions  essential  for  research  and  teaching  in 
anatomy  and  physiology,  medicine  and  surgery  cannot 
be  indifferent.  Under  existing  circumstances,  initial  suc- 
cess in  clinical  investigation  may  easily  prove  the  clini- 
cian's permanent  undoing.  Scientific  distinction  brings 
hordes  of  patients,  especially  the  rich;  and  this  even 
though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  many  instances,  equally 
skilful  service  can  be  had  elsewhere.  In  any  event  so- 
ciety has  other  uses  for  the  clinical  investigator.  For  to 
him  the  country  must  look  altogether  for  the  training  of 
physicians  and  very  largely  for  the  increase  of  knowledge. 
It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  obscure  cases  should  en 


1 66   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

gage  his  attention,  and  important  that  he  should  not  ex- 
pend himself  on  things  that  others  can  do  satisfactorily. 
In  Germany  the  general  university  tradition,  the  practice 
of  basing  academic  distinction  and  promotion  on  scien- 
tific performance,  has  in  the  past  served  to  protect  clini- 
cal professors  from  distraction;  nevertheless,  in  German 
universities  situated  in  large  cities,  very  disquieting  in- 
dications of  demoralization  due  to  the  invasion  of  worldly 
ambitions  can  nowadays  be  perceived.  The  American 
teacher  of  clinical  medicine  wholly  lacks  this  bulwark; 
and  though  here  and  there  an  individual  has  successfully 
maintained  his  ideals  against  the  pressure  of  private 
practice,  the  university  type  of  clinician  is  extremely  rare. 
It  has  therefore  become  important  to  create  conditions 
favorable  to  the  evolution  of  the  full-time  university 
clinician. 

" FULL-TIME"  CLINICAL  TEACHERS 

Fully  cognizant  of  the  situation  just  described,  the 
faculty  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Medical  School,  after  de- 
voting several  years  to  careful  consideration  of  the  best 
way  in  which  to  improve  clinical  conditions,  from  the 
three  essential  points  of  view — care  of  patients,  teaching, 
and  research — recommended  that  the  main  clinical  de- 
partments— medicine,  surgery,  and  pediatrics — should  be 
organized  on  the  full-time  or  university  basis,  if  the 
necessary  endowment  could  be  obtained.  A  letter  setting 
forth  the  facts  was  addressed  to  the  General  Education 
Board,  October  21,  1013-  "The  faculty  of  the  Medical 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  167 

School" — so  ran  the  communication — "are  fully  con- 
vinced of  the  wisdom  and  necessity  of  commanding  the 
entire  time  and  devotion  of  a  staff  of  teachers  in  the  main 
clinical  branches,  precisely  as  the  school  has  since  its 
beginning  commanded  the  entire  time  and  devotion  of 
the  teachers  of  the  underlying  sciences;  we  are  persuaded 
that  the  time  is  ripe  for  the  step  in  question  and  we  are 
desirous  of  undertaking  the  innovation.  Should  the 
General  Education  Board  provide  the  funds,  the  depart- 
ments of  medicine,  surgery,  and  pediatrics  would  be  or- 
ganized on  the  full-time  basis — that  is,  the  professor  and 
his  staff  consisting  of  associate  professors,  associates, 
assistants,  etc. — would  hold  their  posts  on  the  condition 
that  while  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  university  and 
hospital  they  accept  no  fees  for  professional  services. 
They  would  be  free  to  render  any  service  required  by 
humanity  or  science,  but  from  it  they  would  be  expected 
to  derive  no  pecuniary  benefit.  Fees  charged  by  the  hos- 
pital for  professional  services  to  private  patients,  whether 
within  or  without  the  hospital,  by  members  of  the  full- 
time  staff,  such  as  at  present  are  paid  directly  to  the 
physician,  would  be  used  to  promote  the  objects  for  the 
attainment  of  which  this  request  is  made." 

THE   WILLIAM   H.    WELCH   ENDOWMENT 

It  was  calculated  that  an  endowment  approximating 
$1,500,000  would  be  necessary  for  the  purpose  above 
mentioned,  and  this  sum  the  General  Education  Board 
appropriated.  In  consideration  of  his  unique  services 


1 68    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

to  medical  science  and  medical  education,  the  fund  was 
named  the  William  H.  Welch  Endowment  for  Clinical 
Education  and  Research;  for  Dr.  Welch  had  planned  the 
Johns  Hopkins  Medical  School,  had  selected  its  faculty, 
had  guided  its  development,  and  has  throughout  his 
life  been  the  wise,  forceful,  and  modest  leader  of  modern 
medicine  and  modern  medical  education  in  America. 

WASHINGTON   UNIVERSITY   MEDICAL   SCHOOL 

The  Board  is  also  cooperating  with  Washington  Uni- 
versity, St.  Louis,  to  the  same  end.  The  medical  depart- 
ment of  this  institution  had  been  of  the  usual  local  type ; 
but  far-reaching  changes  have  been  recently  made. 
''Within  the  last  three  years,"  in  the  words  of  the  appli- 
cation addressed  to  the  General  Education  Board,  "the 
Medical  Department  of  Washington  University  has  been 
completely  reorganized  as  follows:  The  entire  faculty 
resigned  and  successors,  chosen  on  the  advice  of  the 
leading  medical  scientists,  were  called  from  different 
institutions — the  pathologist  from  the  Rockefeller  In- 
stitute, the  physiologist  from  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin, the  biological  chemist  from  Cornell  University,  the 
chief  physician  from  Tulane  University,  the  chief  surgeon 
from  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital.  At  the  same 
time  the  university  entered  into  contracts  with  the  trus- 
tees of  the  Barnes  Hospital  and  of  the  Children's  Hospital 
according  to  which  the  three  parties  in  interest  decided 
to  build  a  single  plant,  including  a  general  hospital,  a 
children's  hospital,  out-patient  department,  and  univer- 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  169 

sity  laboratories,  on  a  new  site  of  which  all  three  parties 
are  owners.1  The  group  of  buildings  in  question  is  now 
nearing  completion.  They  are  of  modern  design  and 
equipment,  amply  furnished  with  every  appliance  needed 
for  treatment,  education,  and  research.  The  hospitals  will 
be  opened  in  the  summer  of  1914;  the  medical  school  will 
hold  its  next  session  in  the  new  quarters.  In  addition  to 
highly  advantageous  contracts  giving  the  university  ex- 
clusive and  complete  teaching  privileges  in  and  medical 
and  surgical  control  of  the  hospitals,  and  in  addition  to 
the  powerful  community  of  interest  which  these  relations 
create,  the  plant  is  physically  so  unified  that  it  would  be 
practically  impossible  ever  to  separate  it  into  its  con- 
stituent parts. 

"The  plant  above  described  has  cost  something  over 
two  and  one  half  millions;  the  Barnes  Hospital  has  an 
endowment  of  about  one  million  dollars,  which  the  uni- 
versity expects  to  supplement  by  annual  subscriptions, 
and  by  raising  a  university  hospital  fund  of  like  amount. 

'The  arrangement  between  Washington  University  and  the  Barnes 
Hospital  is  important  because  it  shows  how  a  medical  school  and  a  hos- 
pital with  entirely  distinct  endowments  and  control  may  cooperate  in 
caring  for  the  sick,  in  teaching  and  research,  to  the  immense  benefit  of 
all  parties  in  interest.  As  it  is  hardly  likely  that  the  same  individual 
will  found  hospital  and  university  (as  Johns  Hopkins  fortunately  did  i, 
the  type  of  relationship  worked  out  in  St.  Louis  is  of  great  importance. 
For  this  reason,  the  contract  between  the  two  institutions  is  printed  in 
full  in  the  Appendix,  pp.  224-230.  A  similar  contract  has  also  been  made 
between  Washington  University  and  the  St.  Louis  Children's  Hospital, 
by  which  the  Medical  School  obtains  complete  control  of  a  modern  chil- 
dren's hospital  for  its  department  of  pediatrics.  Washington  University 
has  also  contracted  with  both  the  above  named  hospitals  to  operate  a 
Training  School  for  Xurses,  supplying  both  institutions  with  nurses  and 
charging  each  its  projx^r  proportion  of  the  expense  incurred.  The  con- 
tract dealing  with  this  service  is  printed  on  pp.  230-1. 


1 70   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

The  Children's  Hospital  has  fixed  annual  subscriptions  of 
forty  thousand  dollars. 

"It  is  estimated  that  an  endowment  producing  fifty 
thousand  dollars  more  would  suffice  to  provide  a  full- 
time  organization  in  medicine  and  surgery. 

"In  case  the  full-time  scheme  is  introduced,  all  fees  for 
services  rendered  in  the  private  wards  will  be  assessed  by 
the  university  and  collected  through  the  hospital  in 
order  that  in  any  event  only  reasonable  fees  may  be 
charged ;  wherever  such  services  are  rendered  by  any  per- 
son on  the  full-time  basis,  the  fee  will  be  covered  into  the 
fund  which  this  application  seeks  to  establish,  and  used 
for  the  benefit  of  the  clinic  concerned.  As  the  private 
ward  is  a  small  one,  there  will  be  little  use  for  it  beyond 
affording  the  full-time  men  the  opportunity  they  need 
for  observing  obscure  or  interesting  patients  who  would 
not  enter  the  wards. 

"The  medical  faculty  earnestly  desires  to  enter  upon 
its  new  opportunities  equipped  to  take  advantage  of 
them  according  to  the  strictest  demands  of  modern 
science  and  education.  The  university  has  a  clean 
slate;  and  if  the  necessary  aid  is  obtained,  no  step  will 
be  taken  which  will  have  to  be  retraced — no  compromise 
effected  which  will  at  some  future  time  have  to  be  un- 
done." 

In  compliance  with  the  foregoing  request,  the  Board 
appropriated  $750,000  toward  $1,500,000  for  the  endow- 
ment of  university  departments  in  Medicine,  Surgery, 
and  Pediatrics. 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  171 

YALE   UNIVERSITY   MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT 

More  recently,  Yale  University  has  undertaken  a 
thorough  reconstruction  of  its  Medical  Department,  in 
the  course  of  which  the  full-time  principle  will  be  in- 
troduced into  the  main  clinical  departments.  The 
school  was  organized  in  1813  and  has  long  been  an  in- 
tegral part  of  Yale  University.  It  has,  however,  lacked 
separate  endowment  and  has,  therefore,  up  to  this  time, 
had  no  adequate  development,  even  on  the  laboratory 
side.  Its  clinical  facilities  have  consisted  in  a  partial 
and  unsatisfactory  use  of  the  New  Haven  Hospital,  an 
institution  supported  partly  by  income  from  endowment 
and  partly  by  subscription.  Recognizing  the  fact  that 
present  conditions  were  neither  creditable  nor  longer 
tolerable,  the  Trustees  of  the  Hospital  offered  to  the 
Corporation  of  Yale  University  complete  medical  and 
surgical  control  of  the  hospital  provided  the  university 
undertook  to  furnish  adequate  laboratories,  properly 
manned.1  This  situation  made  it  possible  for  Yale  to 
develop  the  type  of  university  medical  school  which  has 
proved  so  productive  and  efficient  in  the  smaller  uni- 
versity towns  of  Germany.  The  university  has  now  set 
out  to  raise  at  least  $2,000,000;  to  erect  on  and  adjacent 
to  the  hospital  site  modern  scientific  laboratories;  and  to 
reorganize  the  main  clinical  departments  on  the  full-time 
basis.  Toward  the  sum  above  named,  the  General 
Education  Board  has  voted  $500,000. 

'This  contract  which  may  also  serve  as  a  model  is  printed  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, pp. 231-240. 


172   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

The  full-time  scheme  is  so  recent  an  innovation  that  a 
few  important  points  may  properly  be  somewhat  fully 
discussed  in  this  connection. 

FREEDOM   UNRESTRICTED 

The  scheme  involves  no  restriction  of  experience.  In 
the  letter  of  application  from  the  faculty  of  the  Johns 
Hopkins  Medical  School  it  was  expressly  stated  that  no 
limitation  would  be  placed  upon  the  members  of  the  full- 
time  clinical  organization.  They  were  not  to  be  kept 
from  seeing  any  patient  that  they  chose  to  see.  They 
can  therefore  take  whatever  steps  they  please  to  procure 
easy  and  frequent  contact  with  incipient  disturbances; 
they  can  also  attend  well-to-do  patients  afflicted  with 
obscure  or  difficult  disease. 

In  these  matters,  the  advantage  lies  altogether  with 
the  full-time  as  against  the  part-time  man.  In  reference, 
for  example,  to  incipient  disturbances,  the  ordinary  con- 
sultant is,  indeed,  the  very  one  whose  advice  is  least  apt 
to  be  invoked  in  the  early  stages  of  a  malady.  For  the 
difficulty  of  seeing  disease  in  its  beginnings,  however,  a 
remedy,  and  what  may  indeed  prove  a  practically  com- 
plete remedy,  lies  at  hand  for  the  full-time  man.  The 
most  neglected  part  of  the  resources  available  for  clinical 
teaching  and  research  is  commonly  the  outpatient  de- 
partment or  dispensary.  The  practitioner  or  consult- 
ant type  of  clinical  teacher  has  not  the  time  to  develop, 
organize,  and  utilize  the  outpatient  service.  The  con- 
nection between  the  dispensary'  and  the  usual  indoor 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  173 

clinic  is,  therefore,  as  a  rule,  nominal.  It  should  be 
close  and  helpful,  for  a  well-utilized  dispensary  will  feed 
and  supplement  a  well-organized  clinic.  The  full-time 
organization  favors  such  a  relation.  The  instructor  and 
his  assistants  can  watch  the  outpatients  for  the  purpose 
of  detecting  disorders  at  the  very  point  of  origin. 
Advantage  has  indeed  already  been  taken  of  this  in  Balti- 
more. The  favorable  comments  of  the  patients  them- 
selves on  the  care  and  sympathy  with  which  they  have 
been  handled  will  rapidly  build  up  the  attendance  and 
thus  increase  the  reservoir  from  which  usable  material 
can  be  drawn. 

Nor  is  the  university  clinician  cut  off  from  the  well-to- 
do.  The  scheme  seeks  only  to  protect  him  from  those 
who  have  no  claim  upon  him  beyond  their  ability  to  pay 
him.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  he  receives  no  fee  for  his 
services,  inasmuch  as  his  time  and  energy  are  to  be  de- 
voted, as  far  as  may  be,  to  teaching  and  research,  he 
will  have  no  interest  in  seeing  patients  whom  others  can 
handle  as  well  as  he.  If  well-to-do  people  come  to  his 
clinic  under  proper  conditions,  they  can  be  received  in  a 
ward  maintained  for  their  reception.  For  such  service 
as  is  rendered  to  them,  a  moderate  professional  fee  will 
be  charged;  and  this  fee  will  be  turned  into  the  university- 
fund  out  of  which  the  department  is  maintained. 

THE   PAY   WARD 

This  arrangement  suggests  the  proper  function  of  the 
pay  ward  in  the  university  hospital.  These  hospitals, 


i74   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

like  other  hospitals,  exist  to  do  service.  But  it  does  not 
follow  that  they  will  do  their  greatest  service  by  develop- 
ing the  largest  pay  ward  that  can  be  skilfully  and  effi- 
ciently administered.  In  no  event  can  the  pay  ward  of 
any  single  hospital  undertake  to  receive  more  than  a 
small  fraction  of  the  well-to-do  sick.  The  rest  must  go 
elsewhere.  Perhaps  then  a  smaller  pay  ward  which  sets 
a  standard  will  do  the  largest  service  for  the  most  people, 
because  it  serves  as  a  model  which  other  establishments 
may  follow.  If  a  particular  hospital  undertook  to  serve 
larger  numbers,  it  might  be  tempted  to  open  the  door  to 
the  profession  generally  or  certain  members  thereof, 
with  the  result  that  the  organization  would  be  impaired 
and  the  work  suffer.  Mere  size  is  therefore  not  neces- 
sarily imposed  on  the  pay  ward,  in  order  to  serve  a  large 
number  of  pay  patients.  This  is  an  important  consid- 
eration for  all  hospital  administrators.  But  it  has  a 
peculiar  urgency  in  case  of  hospitals  associated  with 
university  medical  schools.  Their  greatest  and  widest 
service  is  obviously  their  contribution  to  the  training 
of  successive  generations  of  physicians  and  to  the  in- 
crease of  knowledge  and  skill.  A  large  pay  ward  filled 
with  patients  afflicted  with  ailments  already  well  under- 
stood is  an  obstacle  to  both  research  and  education;  an 
obstacle  to  research,  because  it  squanders  the  time  of  the 
staff;  an  obstacle  to  education,  because,  in  addition,  it 
lowers  the  ideals  of  the  entire  institution.  A  pay  ward 
is  needed,  but  it  should  be  small — only  large  enough,  in 
fact,  to  receive  for  each  full-time  man  a  limited  number 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  175 

of  selected  patients,  for  whom,  in  the  interest  of  science, 
education,  and  humanity,  it  behooves  him  to  care. 

THE   GENERAL   PRACTITIONER 

The  full-time  scheme  involves  no  reflection  upon  the 
general  practitioner.  It  does  not  raise  the  question  of 
superiority  as  between  him  and  the  academic  clinician. 
They  are  simply  two  different  persons,  discharging  differ- 
ent functions.  This  differentiation  of  function  is  re- 
quired by  the  increased  complexity  of  science  and  social 
life;  concentration  and  specialization  under  favorable 
conditions  have  become — as  never  before — requisite  to 
systematic  scientific  achievement.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
they  have  always  been  more  or  less  so.  English  medi- 
cine has  been  less  continuously  productive  than  German 
medicine,  because  in  England  concentration  has  been  more 
frequently  interrupted  by  professional  success.  The  bril- 
liant achievements  of  Hunter,  Bright,  and  Simpson  had 
worldly  consequences  that  made  further  performance  in- 
creasingly difficult.  The  genius  triumphed,  and  was 
swept  away  by  the  demands  of  those  whose  fortunes  en- 
abled them  to  command  his  time.  Concentration  has 
therefore  been  necessary  before  now;  but  nevertheless 
the  interrelation  of  recently  developed  sciences  makes  it 
more  important  now  than  ever  before.  The  full-time 
scheme  is  the  first  frank  and  explicit  attempt  in  medi- 
cine to  accept  the  facts  and  to  build  a  new  structure 
upon  them. 

Meanwhile,  the  practitioner  of  medicine  continues  to 


discharge  important  social,  professional,  and  educational 
responsibilities.  He  has  an  important  practical  function 
in  translating  new  knowledge  into  intelligent  therapeutic 
practice;  he  is  also  in  position  to  make  valuable  con- 
tributions to  knowledge  by  observation  and  experiment. 
Witness  the  great  achievements  of  James  Mackenzie,  a 
practising  physician  in  a  small  English  town,  whose 
studies  mark  an  epoch  in  our  knowledge  of  cardiac  dis- 
ease. The  practitioner  will  also  have  a  place,  more  or 
less  undefined  at  this  moment,  in  the  university  medical 
school.  It  is,  on  the  one  hand,  extremely  important  not 
to  overload  the  full-time  staff  with  routine;  it  is,  on  the 
other,  important  to  save  to  the  student  whatever  is  val- 
uable in  the  practitioner's  experience  and  point  of  view. 
The  practitioner  can  therefore  be  utilized  in  dispensary 
teaching,  to  some  extent  as  clinical  lecturer  or  demon- 
strator and  perhaps  in  the  handling  of  various  specialties. 
There  is  no  disposition  on  the  part  of  those  who  support 
the  full-time  plan  to  deal  arbitrarily  or  dogmatically  with 
these  questions ;  they  must  be  solved  on  the  basis  of  ex- 
perience. Nevertheless,  there  can  be  no  question  that 
the  university  medical  school  will  more  and  more  get 
its  character  from  the  full-time  staff.  The  school  faculty 
will  ultimately  be  composed  only  of  full-time  men;  the 
medical  board  that  controls  hospital  policy  will,  in  the 
interest  of  effectiveness,  be  made  up  of  departmental 
heads  devoting  themselves  singly  to  the  service  of  the 
university  and  the  hospital.  Substantially  these  steps 
have  already  been  taken  in  Baltimore;  and  their  success 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  177 

there  will  lead  to  general  adoption  by  schools  of  equal 
rank. 

POSITIONS   ATTRACTIVE 

For  the  reasons  just  stated,  the  full-time  posts  will  be 
occupied  by  men  who  desire  to  be  absorbed  in  teaching 
and  research.  The  three  professorships  established  at  the 
Johns  Hopkins  Medical  School  have  been  readily  ac- 
cepted at  great  personal  sacrifice  by  men  of  conspicuous 
professional  standing,  all  of  whom  have  gladly  renounced 
personal  pecuniary  advantage  in  order  to  procure  ideal 
conditions  for  clinical  teaching  and  investigation.  A 
similar  experience  is  confidently  anticipated  by  the 
authorities  of  Washington  University  and  Yale. 

There  is  no  occasion  for  surprise  at  this  manifestation 
of  practical  idealism.  With  all  our  love  of  materialistic 
comfort,  in  no  country  in  the  world  is  there  greater 
striving  toward  altruistic  ends,  keener  or  more  constant 
sympathy,  more  frequent  or  more  heedless  sacrifice  in 
the  interest  of  science  and  humanity.  The  teaching  pro- 
fession abounds  in  men  and  women  moved  by  nothing 
less  than  genuinely  religious  zeal;  in  every  institution 
may  be  found  many  such — young,  gifted,  and  devoted. 
An  eminent  Austrian  pharmacologist  who  recently  spent 
a  winter  in  America  declared  that  America  was  the  very 
home  of  practical  idealism.  The  full-time  clinical  chair 
appeals  to  idealistic  motive.  Medicine  has  always  been 
humanitarian;  in  this  form  it  becomes  increasingly  so. 
Not  less  fascinating  than  others  in  point  of  scientific 


1 78   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

interest,  the  clinical  branches  are  assuredly  closer  to  the 
humanitarian  appeal.  They  would  seem  therefore  bound 
in  due  course  to  receive  their  needed  share  of  recruits  on 
the  severe  terms  imposed  by  academic  tradition.  If, 
then,  clinical  progress  is  stimulated,  if  men  are  trained 
willing  to  devote  themselves  to  science  and  humanity  on 
such  terms  as  obtain  in  universities,  the  full-time  organi- 
zation will  have  demonstrated  its  value  and  vindicated 
the  judgment  of  those  who  first  enlisted  in  its  service. 


VII.     RURAL  EDUCATION 

IN  THE  opening  section  of  the  present  volume  atten- 
tion was  called  to  the  organizations  that  have  been 
fruitfully  busy  in  arousing  educational  interest  and 
directing  educational  effort  in  the  Southern  states.  The 
Conference  for  Education  in  the  South  was,  as  was  there 
pointed  out,  a  more  or  less  informal  body,  seeking  to 
assemble  at  its  annual  meetings  representatives  of  every 
phase  of  social,  industrial,  and  educational  interest,  for 
the  purpose  of  cultivating  friendly  intercourse,  exchang- 
ing views,  and  harmonizing  policies  along  broad  lines. 
Out  of  this  Conference,  as  has  been  previously  stated, 
sprang  the  Southern  Education  Board,  a  more  definite 
organization  intended  in  the  first  instance  to  devote  its 
energies  to  developing  public  sentiment  and  to  procuring 
favorable  action  by  legislatures  and  the  people  on  edu- 
cational matters. 

RURAL   SCHOOL   SUPERVISORS 

Among  the  more  important  steps  taken  by  the  Southern 
Education  Board  was  the  support,  in  cooperation  with  the 
Peabody  Fund,  which  had  previously  begun  this  work,  of 
rural  school  supervisors,  charged  with  the  task  of  super- 
vising the  rural  schools  to  which  public  attention  in  the 

179 


iSo        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

South  and  indeed  throughout  the  country  was  then  turn- 
ing. On  the  dissolution  of  the  Peabody  Board  in  1914, 
the  Southern  Education  Board  requested  the  General 
Education  Board  to  undertake  the  future  maintenance 
and  development  of  this  phase  of  its  work.  The  General 
Education  Board  thereupon  authorized  an  investigation 
with  a  view  to  taking  action  in  reference  to  the  further 
support  of  these  officers  whose  continuance  was  eagerly 
desired  by  the  educational  authorities  of  every  Southern 
state. 

On  some  of  the  significant  points  developed  by  this 
objective  study  of  Southern  conditions  in  the  spring  of 
the  current  year  this  volume  has  already  touched,  in 
connection  with  the  secondary  education  movement. 
But  the  facts  are  of  such  importance  that  a  small  amount 
of  repetition  is  necessary  in  order  to  show  their  bearing 
on  the  problem  of  the  rural  school. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  RURAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH 

The  outstanding  feature  of  the  Southern  situation  is  its 
predominantly  rural  character.  Despite  encroachment 
in  the  last  two  decades,  due  to  the  growth  for  the  first 
time  of  some  relatively  large  towns,  the  rural  population 
of  the  entire  region  ranges  from  70  per  cent,  in  Louisiana 
to  88.5  per  cent,  in  Mississippi;  in  seven  states,  the  rural 
population  is  between  70  and  80  per  cent,  of  the  whole ;  in 
six  more,  between  80  per  cent,  and  90  per  cent.  Clearly 
public  education  cannot  succeed  in  these  states  unless 
rural  education  can  be  made  effective.  The  Southern 


RURAL  EDUCATION  181 

states  must  proceed  on  the  assumption  that  the  under- 
taking is  feasible;  their  task  is  to  ascertain  how. 

FAVORABLE   CONDITIONS 

To  Southern  faith  in  education  attention  has  already 
been  directed.  There  are,  to  be  sure,  backward  districts, 
and  great  inert  masses  of  population.  But  there  are  also 
forward  districts,  and  active  centres  of  enthusiasm  and 
endeavor.  The  Conference  for  Education  in  the  South 
had  contributed  to  bringing  about  more  solidarity  in 
respect  to  educational  endeavor  than  exists  in  any  other 
section  of  the  country.  At  times  one  encounters  a  fresh- 
ness, vigor,  and  confidence  that  recall  the  Middle  West 
and  Northwest  of  twenty  years  ago;  one  meets  teachers, 
administrators,  laymen,  aglow  with  what  is  to  them  a  new 
discovery.  Their  spirit  is  that  of  the  religious  mission- 
ary. If  the  experiment  of  developing  efficient  rural 
education  must,  by  the  necessities  of  the  case,  be  at- 
tempted, no  more  favorable  opportunity  than  the  present 
is  likely  to  occur. 

Moreover,  the  South  is  relatively  prosperous,  and  is 
willingly  devoting  steadily  increasing  funds  to  school 
purposes.  The  farm  demonstration  work,  supported 
by  the  government  and  the  General  Education  Board, 
and  now  likely  to  be  greatly  extended,  will  more  and  more 
create  underlying  conditions  favorable  to  educational 
development.  Abundant  statistics  showing  increasing 
provisions  for  schools  can  be  readily  quoted.  The  an- 
nual educational  expenditures  in  North  Carolina  for 


182   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

public  elementary  and  secondary  schools  was  $1,091,226 
in  1901,  $3,069,260  in  1909,  $4,300,000  in  1913 — that  is, 
the  annual  school  fund  has  quadrupled  in  twelve  years. 
The  expenditure  of  South  Carolina  in  1901  was  $961,897; 
in  1909,  $1,590,732;  in  1913,  $2,609,766;  taxes  raised  by 
voluntary  district  taxation  doubled  in  the  same  period. 
Arkansas  appropriated  $1,369,809  in  1900  and  $4,279,478 
in  1913;  Tennessee  raises  altogether  $5,000,000  a  year  for 
educational  purposes;  toward  this  sum  the  state  gave  last 
year  $1,350,000;  prior  to  1903  it  gave  practically  nothing 
at  all.  Of  its  net  state  revenue  of  $6,400,000,  Virginia  in 
1914  devoted  practically  one  half  to  education;  Alabama 
devoted  more  than  half.  Even  more  hopeful  and  sig- 
nificant is  the  fact  that,  by  voluntary  community  cooper- 
ation, funds  are  raised  to  build  schoolhouses  which  are 
presented  to  the  county.  In  Carolina  County,  Virginia,  a 
thoroughly  agricultural  and  by  no  means  wealthy  com- 
munity, four  schoolhouses  for  Negroes  and  three  for 
whites  have  been  lately  built  and  paid  for  by  local  sub- 
scription and  then  donated  to  the  county  authorities. 
These  instances  need  not  be  multiplied.  Though  the 
totals  are  not  yet  sufficiently  large,  they  establish  the 
growing  ability  and  willingness  of  the  Southern  people 
to  spend  of  their  substance  for  the  education  of  their 
children. 

UNFAVORABLE   CONDITIONS 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  certain  conditions,  some 
of  which  have  already  been  touched  on,  that  are  for  the 
time  being  distinctly  unfavorable  to  orderly  educational 


RURAL  EDUCATION  183 

development.  As  things  now  stand,  there  are  still  in 
several  states  serious  obstacles  to  the  conception  and 
gradual  execution  of  comprehensive  plans.  The  state 
educational  organization  is  in  some  states  more  or  less 
defective.  Few  states  have  instituted  really  efficient 
methods  of  raising  money;  certain  of  the  states  have 
in  recent  years  made  some  genuine  improvements ;  others 
are  moving  in  the  same  direction;  elsewhere,  as  in  Ala- 
bama, for  example,  local  taxation  for  school  purposes 
beyond  one  mill  is  unconstitutional.  Perhaps  nowhere 
has  an  entirely  proper  relationship  between  state,  county, 
and  district  officials  been  worked  out.  The  State 
Superintendent  is  still  in  some  states  a  political  official. 
In  Kentucky  and  Alabama  he  may  not  be  reflected;  in 
certain  other  states,  more  than  a  second  term,  even  if  not 
forbidden,  is  very  improbable.  The  county  superin- 
tendency  is  as  yet  too  often  poorly  organized  and 
occupied  far  too  frequently  by  untrained  incumbents, 
who  in  many  cases  give  only  part  of  their  time  to  their 
school  duties.  Too  often  the  official  cannot  expect  re- 
election. In  Kentucky,  custom  limits  the  occupant  to 
two  terms,  though  exceptions  occasionally  occur;  over 
sixty  of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  counties  of  the 
state  chose  new  men  at  the  last  election.  In  Alabama  40 
per  cent,  of  the  county  superintendents  are  also  engaged 
in  some  other  vocation,  though  of  the  sixty-eight  as- 
sistant superintendents,  57  per  cent,  are  trained  teachers. 
Again,  the  teachers,  for  the  most  part  poorly  trained, 
are  a  constantly  shifting  body.  Of  the  Alabama  teach- 


184   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

ers,  75  per  cent,  were  new  to  their  present  places  this 
year.  In  twelve  Mississippi  counties,  a  recent  study 
shows  that  63^  per  cent,  of  the  teachers  are  in  their 
first  year  in  their  present  posts,  23  per  cent,  in  their 
second;  of  twenty-four  schools  lately  visited  in  Louisiana, 
onlyoneschool  hasthesame  teacher  as  last  year.  Finally, 
the  prevailing  schoolhouse  has  still  only  one  room,  so 
that  in  most  rural  schools  an  untrained  girl  is  left  to  cope 
alone  with  all  grades  and  all  subjects  simultaneously. 

RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS 

The  account  just  given  does  not  understate  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  problem.  But  there  is  another  side  to  it. 
An  inventory  must  take  account  not  only  of  such  facts, 
but  of  efforts  and  tendencies,  not  less  real  and,  from  the 
standpoint  of  development,  much  more  significant.  The 
defects  which  we  have  mentioned,  and  others,  as  well, 
are  acutely  felt  and  candidly  admitted.  Efforts  are 
being  everywhere  made  to  remedy  them.  In  North 
Carolina,  the  county  has  already  been  made  the  unit  of 
school  taxation,  school  administration,  and  of  the  appor- 
tionment of  school  funds;  and  a  series  of  amendments 
has  concentrated  the  educational  administrative  power 
in  an  appointive  county  board  of  education  that  selects 
the  county  superintendent.  This  type  of  organization 
has  already  achieved  excellent  results.  A  majority  of 
the  county  superintendents  of  the  state  devote  their 
entire  time  to  their  educational  duties.  Some  have  held 
office  for  ten  or  twelve  or  even  fourteen  years,  and  their 


RURAL  EDUCATION  185 

salaries  range  as  high  as  $2,400  with  traveling  expenses. 
The  increase  of  salaries,  in  order  to  attract  superior  men, 
is  indeed  becoming  quite  common.  In  Mississippi,  to 
give  another  instance,  two  thirds  of  the  seventy-nine 
counties  have  now  full-time  superintendents,  their  sala- 
ries ranging  as  high  as  $1,800  per  annum.  Kentucky 
has  made  some  progress  along  the  same  line.  In  South 
Carolina,  two  counties  have  petitioned  the  legislature  for 
permission  to  abolish  the  elected  in  favor  of  an  appoin- 
tive superintendent,  and  this  most  important  step  was 
long  ago  taken  in  Virginia.  In  Arkansas,  the  office  of 
County  Superintendent  was  for  the  first  time  made 
possible  by  the  legislature  in  1907,  since  which  date 
twenty-one  counties  have  taken  favorable  action.  As- 
sistant superintendents,  county  supervisors,  school  super- 
visors, supervising  teachers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  improve 
teaching  and  internal  school  conditions,  are  provided  in 
Kentucky,  South  Carolina,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  and 
other  states.  An  unmistakable  effort  to  supplant  the 
one-room  school  with  a  consolidated  school  of  three  or 
four  rooms  and  as  many  teachers,  with  the  differentiation 
in  teaching  and  grading  thus  made  possible,  is  succeeding 
here  and  there,  and  the  improvement  is  likely  to  be 
accelerated  by  the  introduction  of  the  inexpensive  auto- 
mobile. Four  years  ago,  for  example,  there  was  not  a 
consolidated  school  in  Mississippi:  there  are  now  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five.  In  Pearl  River  County  alone 
ten  consolidated  schools  have  replaced  forty  one-room 
schools.  In  Louisiana  onlv  twelve  hundred  one-room 


i86   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

schools  are  left:  the  state  has  three  hundred  school 
wagons  in  use.  In  Alabama,  despite  constitutional 
inhibitions,  sporadic  efforts  at  consolidation  have  been 
made.  The  consolidated  school  buildings  represent  a 
striking  advance  in  every  respect.  They  are  tasteful, 
convenient,  well  lighted,  well  ventilated;  their  teachers 
are  happier  and  more  stable;  the  schools  are  at  times 
equipped  for  the  teaching  of  domestic  science,  and  asso- 
ciated with  the  club  work  and  demonstration  work  now 
under  way  in  all  the  states.  The  very  substance  of  rural 
education  has  in  these  instances  been  more  or  less  trans- 
formed. 

The  foregoing  examples  are  cited  as  evidence  of  the 
earnest  striving  characteristic  of  the  situation.  There  is 
indeed  no  lack  of  such  effort.  But  a  serious  difficulty, 
calculated  to  hamper  and  retard  comprehensive  re- 
organization, arises  from  the  absence  of  sufficient  contin- 
uous direction  centred  on  the  really  fundamental  factors 
of  the  situation.  The  South  desires  education;  there  is 
comparatively  little  need  of  undertaking  to  convince  the 
people  that  popular  education  is  essential  to  their  develop- 
ment, though  of  course  certain  neighborhoods  are  back- 
ward and  require  such  efforts.  Moreover,  the  South  is 
willing  to  pay  for  education  more  and  more  liberally,  as  it 
becomes  able  to  do  so.  Finally,  the  South  is  struggling 
to  educate  itself  and  to  improve  its  educational  machinery 
and  organization — struggling  with  courage  and  enthu- 
siasm to  overcome  obstacles  created  by  poverty  and  long 
indifference.  But  adequate  direction  is  lacking.  This  is 


Old  Unity  School,  S.  C. 


Unity  School,  S.  C.     Second  story  for  community  purposes. 


RURAL  EDUCATION  187 

the  most  serious  defect,  and  it  is,  unfortunately,  a  defect 
that  the  states  themselves  are  not  likely  to  remedy  en- 
tirely at  this  time. 

RURAL  EDUCATION  AGENTS 

Under  these  circumstances  the  General  Education 
Board  was  convinced  that  valuable  service  could  be 
rendered  through  the  establishment  of  a  rural  education 
agent  attached  to  the  office  of  the  State  Superintendent 
and  holding  office  continuously.  The  Board  therefore 
authorized  the  expenditure  of  not  exceeding  $45,0x30 
during  the  current  year  for  the  salaries  and  expenses  of 
such  officers  in  eleven  Southern  states.  Inasmuch  as 
rural  school  conditions  are  backward  in  other  sections 
of  the  country  as  well,  the  Board  resolved  further  to  offer 
similar  facilities  to  selected  states  in  the  North,  East 
and  West. 

It  was  understood  that  it  would  be  the  function  of  the 
rural  school  agent  to  assist  in  making  a  thorough  and 
dispassionate  survey  of  rural  education  in  his  state, 
including  laws,  organization,  finance,  equipment,  teach- 
ing force  and  methods,  etc.  On  this  basis,  under  the 
direction  of  the  State  Department  of  Education  and  in 
cooperation  with  other  appropriate  agencies,  organiza- 
tions, and  individuals,  an  adequate  local  program  was  to 
be  worked  out.  In  general,  this  program  should  aim  to 
bring  about  a  readjustment,  which  will  substitute  the 
county  for  the  district  as  the  unit  of  organization,  ad- 
ministration, and  finance;  an  appointive  superintendent 


1 88   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

with  proper  qualifications  was  to  take  the  place  of  the 
elected  superintendent;  local  as  well  as  state  taxation 
was  to  be  made  possible;  consolidated  schools  to  be 
favored;  the  one-room  school  to  be  reorganized  and  de- 
veloped; facilities  to  be  provided  for  training  teachers 
for  a  service  rendered  more  permanent,  more  attractive, 
and  more  fruitful.  It  was  to  be  the  business  of  the  rural 
education  agent  to  aid  the  superintendent  in  recommend- 
ing the  program  agreed  on  to  the  people  of  the  state, 
through  popular  enlightenment  and  through  the  organ- 
ization of  all  available  forces.  His  time  and  energy  were 
thus  to  be  devoted  to  establishing  the  fundamental  general 
conditions  necessary  to  sound  development.  If  improved 
conditions  and  improved  facilities  are  thus  provided, 
better  schools  and  better  teaching  will  result;  intensive 
improvement  of  the  schools,  one  at  a  time,  may  then 
profitably  be  undertaken  by  local  authorities  or  other- 
wise. 

Subsequent  to  the  passage  by  the  General  Education 
Board  of  the  resolution  above  mentioned,  the  secretaries 
of  the  Board  met  the  Southern  State  Superintendents 
in  conference  at  Nashville.  These  officials  were  unani- 
mous in  seeking  the  Board's  cooperation.  In  conformity 
with  the  policy  which  has  been  repeatedly  emphasized 
in  this  report,  it  was  made  clear  that  every  state  must 
handle  its  problem  in  its  own  way;  that  the  Board  had  no 
detailed  program  to  propose.  This  conference,  however, 
developed  distinct  agreement  to  the  effect  that  the  most 
useful  service  that  could  at  this  juncture  be  rendered  lay 


RURAL  EDUCATION  189 

in  the  direction  of  bringing  about  the  improved  under- 
lying conditions  above  noted,  as  respects  organization, 
taxation,  length  of  school  terms,  salaries,  training  of 
teachers,  etc.  The  rural  school  agent  was  to  be  an  instru- 
ment in  the  hands  of  the  State  Superintendent  to  improve 
conditions  as  to  those  and  other  matters,  the  State  Super- 
intendent being  the  judge  as  to  the  relative  urgency  of 
the  several  items  forming  the  program.  On  this  basis 
it  was  agreed  that  a  concerted  effort  on  more  or  less 
similar  lines  would  result,  the  outcome  of  which  would 
be  a  common  movement  toward  a  common  end. 


VIII.    NEGRO  EDUCATION 

THE  improvement  of  facilities  for  the  education  of 
the  Negro  was  among  the  first  subjects  taken  up 
by  the  General  Education  Board.  In  dealing 
with  it,  the  Board  has  followed  the  method  already  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  other  activities:  thorough  in- 
quiries were  made  for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  details 
of  the  existing  status — not  only  educational,  but  social 
and  economic;  and  gifts  of  a  tentative  character  were 
made  in  order  that  any  program  ultimately  adopted 
might  be  the  outcome  of  experiment  and  demonstration. 
In  determining  its  successive  steps,  the  Board  has  drawn 
on  various  sources  of  information  and  counsel.  Its 
original  surveys  dealt  fully  with  the  conditions  of  Negro 
schools  in  the  several  states,  public  and  private;  special 
inquiries  have  from  time  to  time  thrown  light  on  particu- 
lar aspects  of  the  problem;  the  Secretary  of  the  Board 
was  for  several  years  general  agent  of  the  Slater  Fund, 
and  in  this  capacity  traveled  extensively  through  the 
South,  visiting  Negro  schools  and  conferring  with  both 
whites  and  blacks  on  the  subject  of  Negro  education;  and 
the  trustees  and  the  president  of  tie  Jeanes  Fund  have 
been  in  close  consultation  and  cooperation  with  the  offi- 
cers and  members  of  the  General  Education  Board. 

190 


A  Xegro  Rural  School. 


Queensland  Industrial  School,  Ben  Hill  County,  (Ja. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  191 

FIRST   STEPS   IN   NEGRO  EDUCATION 

In  the  years  immediately  following  the  war  Negro 
schools  were  founded  throughout  the  South  by  several 
northern  organizations,  such,  for  example,  as  the  Ameri- 
can Missionary  Association,  the  Board  of  Missions  for 
Freedmen  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  the  Freedmen's 
Aid  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  the 
American ,  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  and  other 
similar  organizations.  These  schools  have,  with  varying 
degrees  of  success,  rendered  a  large  service,  particularly 
in  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  public  schools  and 
in  the  training  of  colored  ministers.  In  some  cases  they 
have  developed  colleges  which  will  form  the  nucleus  of  a 
system  of  schools  for  the  higher  education  of  Negroes. 
Any  discussion  of  Negro  education  must  recognize  the 
disinterested  motives  of  these  organizations  and  the 
importance  and  value  of  the  schools  maintained  by 
them. 

The  Negroes  themselves  have  organized  a  large  num- 
ber of  local  schools,  some  of  which  have  attained  size 
and  importance.  These  schools  represent  the  aspira- 
tion of  the  Negro  for  self-culture,  and  have  been  accom- 
panied in  many  cases  by  sacrifice  of  the  highest  character. 
In  addition  to  this,  as  is  well  known,  large  schools  like 
Hampton  and  Tuskegee,  which  are  strictly  of  private 
foundation,  have  been  established.  There  are  also  a 
number  of  private  schools  of  undoubted  value,  like  the 
schools  located  at  Manassas,  Va.;  Calhoun,  Snow  Hill, 


192   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

and  Mt.  Meigs,  Ala.;  St.  Helena  Island,  S.  C.;  Utica, 
Miss.;  and  others,  which  are  largely  supported  by  con- 
tributions from  the  North. 

Moreover,  all  the  states  of  the  South  have  founded 
normal  schools  for  the  training  of  Negro  teachers,  such, 
for  example,  as  the  well-known  institutions  at  Normal 
and  Montgomery,  Alabama;  Pine  Bluff,  Arkansas;  Talla- 
hassee, Florida;  Frankfort,  Kentucky;  Baton  Rouge, 
Louisiana;  Alcorn,  Mississippi;  Greensboro  and  Win- 
ston-Salem,  North  Carolina;  Orangeburg,  South  Caro- 
lina; Nashville,  Tennessee;  Prairie  View,  Texas;  and 
Petersburg,  Virginia. 

THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   FUNDAMENTAL 

While  fully  recognizing  the  importance  of  the  work 
above  described,  and  the  importance  of  encouraging 
private  initiative  in  this  as  in  other  educational  fields, 
the  Board,  nevertheless,  has  kept  steadily  in  view  the 
obvious  fact  that  in  the  education  of  the  Negro  as  of  the 
whites  the  public  school  must  be  the  main  reliance.  An 
educational  agency  is  needed  large  enough,  well  enough 
supported  and  organized  to  train  enormous  masses  in  the 
arts  of  civilization.  The  public  school  is  the  sole  in- 
strumentality equal  to  a  task  of  such  magnitude.  More- 
over, public  schools  can  be  developed  only  through  the 
leadership  of  the  Southern  white.  Northern  philan- 
thropy may  assist,  as  it  has  assisted  and  is  assisting,  gen- 
erously, intelligently,  and  sympathetically.  But  the 
main  privilege  and  responsibility  necessarily  rest  at  this 


SJ  T3 


&.B 


o  ji^ 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  193 

juncture  upon  the  South  itself,  and  upon  that  part  of  the 
Southern  people  that  is  strongest  in  wealth,  intelligence, 
and  power.  The  General  Education  Board  therefore 
resolved  that,  while  certain  privately  managed  institu- 
tions must  be  aided,  its  main  purpose  required  that  it 
cooperate  with  progressive  Southern  sentiment  in  cre- 
ating publicly  supported  educational  systems. 

As  education  produces  its  natural  results,  the  wealth, 
energy,  and  ambition  of  the  Negroes  themselves  become 
more  and  more  important  factors.  The  Board  has  there- 
fore assisted  the  Negro  to  help  himself,  through  his  pri- 
vate schools,  not  so  much  by  working  upon  him  as  by 
working  with  him;  not  by  founding  and  supporting 
schools  for  him,  but  rather  by  helping  him  to  found  and 
support  schools  for  himself.  Fortunately,  experience  has 
shown  that  the  Negroes  welcome  opportunities  to  turn 
these  schools  over  to  the  public  school  system  when  the 
authorities  are  ready  to  support  them;  the  two  lines  of 
effort  thus  move  in  harmony  toward  a  single  goal — an 
adequate  public  school  organization. 

And  it  is  especially  the  rural  public  school  that  is  of 
interest  to  the  Southern  Negro.  About  80  per  cent, 
of  the  Negroes  in  the  Southern  states  live  on  farms.  City 
schools,  normal  schools,  and  colleges  do  but  little  for 
people  who  live  in  the  open  country.  They  can  be 
helped  only  as  efficient  rural  schools  are  developed.  The 
problem  is  in  principle  identical  with  that  discussed  in 
the  preceding  chapter;  it  is  more  difficult  only  because 
of  the  greater  poverty  of  the  black,  his  limited  develop- 


i94   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

ment,  and  the  prejudices  that  must  be  overcome.  He 
profits,  however,  by  the  same  tendencies  that  at  the 
moment  assist  the  rural  whites:  the  turning  of  public 
sentiment  in  the  direction  of  the  country;  the  rise  in  value 
of  farm  lands  and  farm  products  due  to  the  increased 
cost  of  living  in  towns;  the  increase  in  farm  productivity 
by  the  introduction  of  machinery  and  better  methods  of 
farming;  the  general  introduction  of  conveniences  and 
amenities  through  the  telephone,  good  roads,  rapid 
transit,  free  delivery,  and  the  parcel  post.  The  data 
adduced  in  connection  with  farm  demonstrations1  prove 
that  the  Negro  is  eagerly  taking  advantage  of  his  oppor- 
tunities to  attain  economic  independence  in  the  country; 
a  fact  that  renders  educational  improvement  at  once 
more  necessary,  more  hopeful,  and  more  certain. 

STATE   SUPERVISORS   OF   NEGRO  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

For  the  purpose  of  arousing  interest  and  furnishing 
intelligent  and  specialized  guidance,  a  state  supervisor  of 
Negro  schools  was  supported  in  Virginia  by  the  Peabody 
Education  Fund  and  the  Southern  Education  Board. 
The  appointee  had  already  demonstrated  the  value  of 
such  supervision  while  superintendent  of  schools  in 
Henrico  County,  Virginia.  The  General  Education 
Board,  recognizing  the  importance  of  this  work,  decided  to 
extend  it  throughout  the  South,  as  opportunity  occurred. 
The  Board  offered  to  cooperate  with  state  departments 
of  education  by  furnishing  funds  adequate  to  pay  the 

1  See  pp.  54-57. 


Poplar  Lawn  School,  Va.,  "Before  and  After. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  195 

salaries  and  expenses  of  state  agents  for  Negro  rural 
schools.  Appropriations  were  to  be  made  to  the  state 
departments  and  only  on  application  of  these  depart- 
ments ;  the  agent — or  supervisor,  as  he  is  usually  called — 
was  to  be  chosen  by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion and  thus  become  a  state  official  with  all  the  powers 
and  responsibilities  of  such  a  position.  On  this  basis, 
agents  are  now  supported  by  the  General  Education 
Board  in  the  states  of  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Georgia, 
Kentucky,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia. 

These  agents  are  white  men  who  have  had  large  and 
successful  experience  in  school  management.  They 
have  in  every  instance  gained  the  confidence  not  only  of 
the  colored  people  and  the  public  school  authorities,  but 
of  white  citizens  in  general.  As  representing  the  state 
department,  they  have  the  entree  to  all  counties,  com- 
munities, and  schools:  they  transact  the  state's  business 
with  county  superintendents,  county  school  boards,  local 
trustees,  and  teachers.  They  interest  the  Negroes  of  a 
vicinity  in  the  local  school  and  bring  the  two  races  to 
join  in  its  improvement.  Substantial  sums  have  thus 
been  obtained  from  both  races  for  local  school  improve- 
ments. They  have  already  brought  about  the  consoli- 
dation of  several  weak  schools  into  central  schools;  they 
have  participated  in  planning  and  constructing  school 
buildings;  in  choosing  teachers;  in  improving  the  curricu- 
lum, especially  along  industrial  and  domestic  lines;  in 
effecting  cooperation  between  the  schools,  farm  demon- 
stration and  club  agents,  and  in  securing  gradually  in- 


196   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

creasing  allotments  from  public  funds,  of  which,  however, 
the  expenditure  on  the  Negro  is  still  disproportionately 
small.  For  the  support  of  these  agents,  the  General 
Education  Board  appropriates  $2,500  each  per  year  for 
salary,  and  a  sum  not  to  exceed  $1,000  each  for  necessary 
expenses. 

COOPERATION   WITH    THE   ANNA    T.    JEANES   FUND 

The  effectiveness  of  this  "work  has  been  greatly  in- 
creased by  its  intimate  association  with  the  activities 
of  the  industrial  supervisors  and  teachers  supported 
by  the  Jeanes  Fund.  These  teachers,  appointed  by  the 
county  superintendent  and  working  under  his  direction, 
are  at  the  same  time  in  close  cooperation  with  the  state 
agent  maintained  by  the  General  Education  Board.  At 
the  present  time  128  such  teachers  are  at  work.  They 
are  for  the  most  part  graduates  of  Hampton,  Tuskegee, 
Petersburg,  Fisk,  Atlanta,  Spelman,  and  kindred  insti- 
tutions. Each  teacher  visits  a  number  of  the  country 
schools,  gives  a  lesson  in  some  industry,  plans  with  the 
regular  teacher  to  give  additional  lessons  in  her  absence, 
organizes  parents'  clubs,  and  starts  a  movement  for  better 
school  equipment  or  longer  term,  counsels  the  local  teacher 
about  her  daily  teaching,  and  stirs  the  community  to 
united  effort  to  better  the  school.  Many  of  these  teachers 
are  employed  for  the  entire  year;  when  school  is  no  longer 
in  session,  they  carry  on  similar  work  in  the  community. 
Wherever  the  industrial  teacher  and  the  rural  school 
supervisor  have  gone,  quick  improvement  is  perceptible  in 


Old  school,  Burkeville,  Va. 


New  school,  three  nxjms,  Burkeville,  Ya. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  197 

the  physical  appearance  of  grounds,  buildings,  and  pupils. 
Improvement  leagues  are  formed;  money  is  raised  by  sub- 
scription to  paint  or  whitewash  the  building,  to  buy  a 
stove  and  procure  the  necessary  equipment  for  cooking 
classes  among  both  the  girls  and  their  mothers.  Elemen- 
tary sanitation  is  inculcated ;  fairs  and  exhibitions  are  held 
through  which  the  results  are  brought  together  for  the 
pleasure  and  enlightenment  of  pupils  and  patrons.  In 
1912-13,  twenty- three  supervising  teachers  worked  under 
the  general  direction  of  the  state  supervisor  in  twenty-five 
Virginia  counties:  591  schools  were  visited,  417  of  them 
regularly;  189  extended  their  terms  by  one  month,  their 
patrons  bearing  the  expense;  20  new  schoolhouses  were 
built  at  a  costof  $23,808;  15  more  were  enlarged  at  a  cost  of 
$2,212;  428;  school  leagues  raised  among  Negroes  $22,655. 
In  1913-14,  supervising  industrial  teachers  worked  in  27 
counties;  22  new  Negro  schoolhouses,  costing  $18,230, 
were  built;  12  enlarged,  at  a  cost  of  $3,612;  182  extended 
their  terms  one  month  through  subscriptions,  mainly 
of  their  patrons;  125  sanitary  outhouses  were  built; 
$28,673  was  raised  by  Negroes  for  school  improvements. 
It  is  impossible  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  this  work 
and  that  of  the  clubs  described  as  part  of  the  farm  demon- 
strations. In  Virginia,  for  example,  14  teachers  report  617 
girls  in  the  clubs  of  15  counties  with  416  home  gardens, 
of  which  two  thirds  are  "excellent" ;  the  girls  put  up  10,504 
jars  of  vegetables  for  home  use,  their  mothers  12,269. 
"I  spent  August  5th  and  6th  with  Superintendent  Wash- 
ington of  Caroline  County,"  writes  the  state  supervisor 


1 98   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

in  September,  1913.  "We  joined  the  supervising  teacher 
and  the  special  agent  in  charge  of  canning  clubs,  and 
drove  through  the  county,  visiting  the  gardens  of  the  vari- 
ous members  of  the  club.  Every  garden  was  laid  off  in 
straight  rows,  usually  eight,  with  a  walk  in  the  middle. 
There  were  two  rows  of  flowers,  two  rows  of  cabbage,  two 
rows  of  snap  beans,  one  early  and  one  late,  and  two  rows 
pf  tomatoes.  They  were  well  cultivated,  clean  of  weeds. 
Most  of  them  had  resisted  the  temptation  to  'hill'  the  to- 
matoes, and  cultivated  level,  as  they  were  directed.  In 
nearly  every  case  the  tomatoes  were  held  up  by  some 
support. 

"On  the  8th  there  was  held  at  Bowling  Green  the 
first  Conference  of  the  Girls'  Canning  and  Poultry  Clubs 
of  Caroline  County.  Nearly  all  of  the  eighty  members 
were  present  with  their  parents  and  other  members  of 
their  families.  They  brought  exhibits  of  their  vegetables, 
canned  goods,  bread,  cake,  sewing,  poultry,  etc.  Simple 
prizes  given  by  the  county  school  board  were  awarded. 
Girls  who  had  been  most  successful  and  those  who  had 
overcome  unusual  difficulties  were  called  on  to  tell  how 
they  cultivated  their  gardens,  how  they  made  fences, 
how  they  canned  their  tomatoes,  or  baked  bread,  etc. 
The  prize  for  the  best  kept  garden  was  awarded  to  two 
motherless  girls  eleven  and  twelve  years  of  age,  who  kept 
house  for  their  father.  Their  garden,  located  in  a  piece  of 
newly  cleared  land,  was  a  model  of  neatness  and  careful 
cultivation."  Similar  experiences  can  be  reported  from 
the  other  states. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  199 

IMPROVED  RELATIONS  OF  RACES 

A  more  cordial  relation  between  the  races  has  followed 
in  the  wake  of  educational  progress.  Nothing,  indeed, 
is  of  fairer  promise  than  the  awakened  interest  of  the 
white — superintendent  and  layman — in  the  improve- 
ment of  Negro  schools.  For  example,  a  conference  of 
Alabama  County  Superintendents  with  the  State  Super- 
intendent and  the  State  Supervisor  of  Negro  Schools 
visits  Tuskegee  Institute  in  a  body  and  confesses  "a  new 
vision  in  regard  to  the  Negro";  again,  the  state  super- 
visor addresses  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  of  the  State  College  of 
Agriculture  at  Auburn,  Alabama,  on  the  Negro  problem, 
and  forty-five  members  subsequently  accompany  him  on 
a  visit  of  inspection  to  Tuskegee.  At  one  of  the  summer 
institutes  held  for  Negro  teachers  in  Georgia,  the  work 
of  the  Negro  industrial  teacher  was  so  novel  and  inter- 
esting that  the  white  county  superintendent  asked  her  to 
come  over  to  the  white  institute  in  order  to  give  a  demon- 
stration of  her  work.  She  was  kept  half  a  day  answering 
questions  and  explaining  the  way  she  did  the  work.  At 
other  times,  white  teachers  have  gone  to  see  what  the 
Negroes  were  doing  in  their  institute.  What  they  ob- 
serve surprises  the  whites,  and  the  experience  affords 
pleasure  and  stimulation  to  the  Negro  teachers.  "Shall 
this  not  be  a  mighty  entering  wedge  to  reach  the  preju- 
dices and  the  sympathies  of  the  white  people?"  asks 
the  state  agent  in  reporting  the  incidents.  From 
North  Carolina  comes  an  account  of  a  meeting  of  lead- 


200   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

ing  white  citizens  at  the  Slater  Normal  School  for  Negroes. 
Among  them  were  the  city  and  county  superintendents 
of  schools  and  several  members  of  the  Board  of  Trustees. 
The  object  of  the  meeting  was  to  study  the  condition  and 
needs  of  the  normal  school  in  order  to  devise  means  by 
which  it  may  train  more  and  better  teachers  and  serve 
the  Negro  race  more  effectively.  Plans  for  the  erection 
of  a  new  dormitory  for  girls,  and  for  improving  the 
teacher  training  course  were  discussed. 

IMPROVEMENT   OF   TEACHERS 

By  way  of  improving  the  quality  of  the  teaching, 
summer  institutes  have  been  widely  developed  by  the 
state  supervisors.  In  1913,  thirty-seven  such  institutes 
were  conducted  in  Alabama,  with  an  attendance  of  1,800 
teachers,  who  received  instruction  in  academic,  industrial, 
and  domestic  branches;  of  the  total  expense  of  $2,600,  the 
state  contributed  $1,500,  the  teachers  themselves  $i  ,000, 
and  the  Slater  Board  $100.  In  Arkansas,  five  State  In- 
dustrial Summer  Normal  Schools  were  held  in  June,  1914. 
The  attendance  was  935.  Meanwhile,  county  institutes 
were  simultaneously  in  progress  throughout  the  state. 
Large  summer  schools,  in  which  the  state  supervisors 
assist,  are  held  regularly  at  Hampton,  Tuskegee,  and 
other  institutions.  "A  spirit  of  helpfulness  and  de- 
votion characterized  the  work  of  these  Negro  educators," 
writes  the  white  supervisor  in  his  account  of  the 
summer's  efforts.  Similar  undertakings  are  in  progress 
in  every  Southern  state. 


Sewing  lesson  in  a  Gloucester  County  school,  Va. 


Northampton  County  exhibit,  Ya. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  201 

SELF-HELP 

Most  interesting  and  significant  of  all  are  the  indica- 
tions of  self-help  reported  from  all  directions.  Christian 
County,  Kentucky,  reports  in  a  single  year  13  new  build- 
ings, 5  new  sites,  7  schools  with  new  furniture,  63  new 
outbuildings,  2  new  fences,  2  new  cisterns,  31  new  stoves 
—toward  all  of  which  the  colored  people  themselves  had 
subscribed  more  than  half.  The  whites  of  Fordyce, 
Arkansas,  donated  land  and  lumber  for  a  new  building 
for  the  Negro  school;  the  colored  people  of  the  town 
contributed  $150  toward  putting  it  up.  In  Ben  Hill 
County,  Georgia,  a  $1,600  schoolhouse  and  ten  acres  of 
land  were  furnished  by  the  town  for  an  industrial  school; 
the  Negroes  thereupon  raised  $550,  which  the  county 
duplicated,  to  add  two  more  rooms  and  an  additional 
teacher.  At  Spottsylvania,  Virginia,  the  Negroes  had 
acquired  160  acres  of  land  and  $800  toward  a  private 
secondary  school;  the  school  board,  impressed  by  their 
eagerness,  took  it  over  as  a  public  graded  school  to  be 
maintained  by  the  county.  In  Caroline  County,  Vir- 
ginia, whites  and  blacks  have  emulated  each  other  in 
consolidating  and  reconstructing,  largely  out  of  their 
own  pockets,  the  country  schools.  The  experience  of 
this  county,  indeed,  proves  the  soundness  of  the  policy 
that  has  thus  far  been  pursued.  The  Negroes  had  estab- 
lished at  Bowling  Green  an  Industrial  Academy  with  ten 
acres  of  land  and  a  building  costing  together  $2,000;  this 
they  have  offered  to  turn  over  to  the  county  school 


202   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

board  to  be  used  as  a  county  training  school  for  teachers 
—the  state  contributing  $350,  the  Slater  Fund  $500 
annually  toward  maintenance.  Four  rural  schools, 
built  by  the  Negroes  at  a  cost  of  $5,400,  and  three 
others  in  process  of  construction,  to  cost  $4,900,  have 
been  donated  to  the  county.  These  schools  all 
previously  had  one  room  and  ran  for  five  months:  now 
they  have  from  two  to  five  rooms  and  run  for  eight 
months.  The  whites  of  Caroline  County  look  with  sym- 
pathy and  pride  on  these  improvements;  the  donation 
of  the  schools  is  an  evidence  of  the  mutual  trust 
and  confidence  that  has  sprung  up  between  the  two 
races.  Similar  examples  can  be  cited  from  Amelia 
County,  Charlotte  County,  Cumberland  County,  and 
elsewhere. 

THE  JEANES  FUND  OF  THE  GENERAL 
EDUCATION  BOARD 

The  income  from  $200,000  given  to  the  General  Edu- 
cation Board  by  Miss  Anna  T.  Jeanes 1  has  been  utilized 
in  stimulating  efforts  of  this  kind.  Between  1906  and 
1912,  seventy-four  schools  in  Alabama  were  thus  aided; 
toward  buildings  and  equipment,  costing  $54,153,  the 
Jeanes  Fund  of  the  General  Education  Board  contributed 
$18,888;  Negro  patrons  of  the  schools,  $35,265;  toward 
$17,690  spent  in  maintenance  in  the  year  1910-11,  the 
Fund  gave  $1,068,  county  boards,  $9,070,  and  Negro 
patrons,  $7,552. 

'See  Appendix,  pp.  223. 


Chair  caning  exhibit,  Henrico  Countv.  Va. 


Specimens  of  manual  training  work  and  sewing  done  by  Xegro  school 
children  of  Isle  of  Wight  County,  Va.  Farmers'  Conference  Kxhibit, 
1912,  Hampton  Institute. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  203 

APPROPRIATIONS   TO   INDUSTRIAL   INSTITUTES 

At  the  present  time,  schook  are  fortunate  if  they  obtain 
as  principals  and  teachers  the  graduates  of  one  of  the 
better  industrial  schools  for  Negroes.  The  General  Edu- 
cation Board  has  therefore  assisted  some  of  the  more 
efficient  of  these  industrial  training  schools  as  follows: 

Hampton  Institute $138,000.00 

Tuskegee  Institute 135,483.48 

Spelman  Seminary 196,912.88 

Other  Institutions 85,384.77 


Total $555.781.13 

With  the  same  end  in  view,  gifts  toward  improved 
physical  equipment  have  been  made  to  a  number  of  sec- 
ondary schools  owned  or  controlled  by  Negroes  them- 
selves— e.  g.,  Waters  Normal  Institute  (Win ton,  North 
Carolina) ;  Thompson  Institute  (Lumberton,  North  Car- 
olina); Jeruel  Academy  (Athens,  Georgia);  Americus 
Institute  (Americus,  Georgia) ;  Howe  Institute  (Memphis, 
Tennessee);  Florida  Baptist  Academy  (Jacksonville, 
Florida) ;  and  others. 

HIGHER   EDUCATION   OF   THE    NEGRO 

While  the  main  stress  has  been,  and  for  some  time 
must  continue  to  be,  laid  on  the  activities  which  we 
have  described,  it  has  also  been  recognized  that  the 
higher  education  of  the  Negro  ought  not  to  be  neglected. 
The  reasoning  followed  in  dealing  with  secondary  schools 


204        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

and  colleges  for  whites  is  equally  valid  for  Negroes. 
That  is,  if  primary  and  secondary  Negro  schools  are  to 
have  good  teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors,  provision 
must  be  made  for  the  higher  training  of  these  instructors 
and  officers.  Moreover,  competent  Negroes  often  desire 
higher  education  as  the  basis  for  some  form  of  specialized 
or  professional  training.  Personal  aspiration  and  race 
welfare  unite  in  suggesting  the  development  of  suitable 
academic  opportunities  for  those  who  are  capable. 

In  the  years  immediately  succeeding  the  war,  many 
institutions  were  founded  for  the  higher  education  of 
Negroes.  In  too  many  instances,  however,  these  well- 
meant  endeavors  were  entered  upon  without  due  con- 
sideration of  the  magnitude  of  the  work  and  the  diffi- 
culties involved.  Colleges  and  universities  may  be 
never  so  desirable,  but  such  institutions  cannot  be  created 
without  a  competent  faculty,  a  capable  student  body, 
suitable  facilities,  and  ample  and  continuous  financial 
support. 

In  the  period  with  which  we  are  dealing,  none  of  these 
essential  conditions  could  be  met.  A  small  number  of 
capable  teachers  were  indeed  secured — mainly  Northern 
men  and  women  inspired  by  missionary  spirit;  but,  gen- 
erally speaking,  scholarly  faculties  could  not  at  that 
time  be  recruited  for  the  far  too  numerous  colleges  and 
universities  established  for  the  colored  race.  Again,  as 
is  evident  from  the  previous  sections  of  this  chapter, 
there  were  practically  no  organized  facilities  for  the 
preliminary  training  of  a  body  of  college  students. 


Boy  and  girl  in  their  garden  getting  instructions  from  teacher. 


A  pri/x.-  garden,  Caroline  County.  Va.     Two  rows  of  (lowers  in  middle,  then 
on  each  side  a  row  of  cabbage,  beans,  and  tomatoes. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  205 

Finally,  funds  in  sufficient  amounts  were  yet  to  be  raised 
and  plants  provided. 

In  the  last  few  years,  however,  order  has  begun  to 
emerge  from  chaos.  Public  school  systems  are  beginning 
to  take  shape;  and  though  in  the  main  their  work  is  still 
limited  to  the  elementary  grades,  nevertheless,  here  and 
there — as,  for  example,  at  Little  Rock — an  excellent 
public  high  school  has  been  established.  Preparatory 
schools  have  also  been  developed — either  as  the  academic 
departments  of  industrial  institutes,  or  in  connection 
with  the  colleges  and  universities.  Thus,  in  one  way  or 
another,  fair  opportunities  for  procuring  the  necessary 
secondary  training  are  now  open  to  energetic  boys  and 
girls  who  enjoy  the  necessary  support  or  are  willing  "to 
work  their  way  through." 

Meanwhile,  the  formation  of  a  better  teaching  staff 
has  become  feasible.  A  small  number  of  colored  men 
and  women  have  been  graduated  by  Oberlin,  Amherst, 
Brown,  Harvard,  and  other  institutions,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  whom  have  from  the  outset  had  college  teaching 
definitely  in  view;  in  addition,  many  of  the  most  capable 
graduates  of  the  Negro  colleges,  keenly  realizing  the 
deficiencies  of  their  training,  have  from  time  to  time 
sought  the  larger  opportunities  offered  by  the  summer 
schools  or  extension  courses  at  Columbia,  the  University 
of  Chicago,  and  elsewhere. 

Nevertheless,  the  situation  still  abounds  in  difficulties. 
Pure  and  high  motives  led  religious  and  philanthropic 
organizations,  white  and  colored,  to  establish  their  so- 


206        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

called  colleges  and  universities.  But,  as  there  was  no 
cooperation  at  the  outset,  so  there  has  been  no  cooper- 
ation since.  Each  of  the  interested  bodies  went,  and 
has  continued  to  go,  its  own  way,  with  little  regard  to 
what  other  similar  bodies  had  undertaken  or  were  in- 
tending. The  number  of  institutions  now  struggling  for 
existence  is  out  of  all  relation  to  the  number  of  qualified 
teachers  and  students  procurable,  the  financial  resources 
available  for  support,  and  the  sendee  to  be  performed. 

Inevitably,  therefore,  internal  college  conditions  are 
bound  to  be  unsatisfactory.  A  college  consists  essen- 
tially of  an  adequate  and  homogeneous  student  body, 
and  a  competent  staff  occupied  with  their  training. 
But  the  aggregate  number  of  competent  students  is  so 
small  that  there  are  colleges  with  as  few  as  eight  or 
ten  collegiate  students.  In  consequence  of  this  scarcity 
of  students  trained  up  to  college  level,  secondary  and 
even  elementary  instruction  forms  the  main  activity  of 
most  Negro  colleges  and  universities.  In  only  one  insti- 
tution is  it  claimed  that  as  many  as  one  half  the  stu- 
dents are  above  the  high  school  level;  in  most  institu- 
tions the  number  of  college  students  is  less  than  10  per 
cent,  of  the  total  enrolment.  Besides,  limited  as  it  is, 
the  student  body  is  far  from  being  sufficiently  uniform 
in  training  or  capacity.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  college  teachers  are  required  to  do  an  inordinately 
large  amount  of  non-collegiate  teaching;  and  their  college 
instruction  is  addressed  to  an  unduly  small  and  a  dis- 
tinctly uneven  student  body. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  207 

These  difficulties  are  in  many  places  aggravated  by 
the  teachers  themselves,  who  pitch  their  instruction  on 
a  plane  at  once  too  high  and  too  remote.  The  mistake 
is  not  an  unnatural  one.  These  teachers  are  men  and 
women  of  unusual  ability,  energy,  and  ambition.  Eager 
to  train  at  a  high  level  the  future  leaders  of  their  race, 
they  emulate  the  procedure  of  the  colleges  for  white 
boys  in  which  they  have  themselves  studied.  As  a 
result,  their  teaching  is  too  often  concerned  with  tasks 
which  their  students  are  incapable  of  mastering,  or  for 
which  there  is  no  practical  outcome.  The  courses 
offered  are  often  too  abstract,  too  ambitious,  or  too 
learned.  The  students  are  not  lacking  in  earnestness; 
they  apply  themselves  to  their  tasks  with  all  the  energy 
they  can  summon.  But  the  tasks  are  too  frequently 
beyond  their  strength.  They  strain  to  grasp  what  is 
simply  beyond  their  reach. 

From  the  foregoing  discussion,  several  important 
conclusions  follow.  A  higher  education  ought  to  be 
furnished  to  capable  Negro  men  and  women;  but  the 
mere  attempt  to  deliver  the  traditional  college  curriculum 
to  the  Negro  does  not  constitute  a  higher  education. 
His  own  needs,  environment,  capacity,  and  opportunity 
should  be  freshly  studied  and  college  curricula  should  be 
framed  in  the  light  of  the  facts  thus  elicited.  Moreover, 
these  curricula  should  all  be  regarded  as  experimental. 
Teachers  should  be  constantly  on  the  lookout,  in  order 
to  determine  whether  the  preparatory  training  of  the 
student  is  adequate  to  the  collegiate  tasks  imposed,  and, 


208   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

if  so,  whether  the  tasks  in  question  subserve  their  in- 
tended purpose.  As  conditions  change,  particularly  as 
elementary  and  secondary  training  improves,  corres- 
ponding readjustments  can  be  made.  The  entire  pro- 
cedure must,  however,  be  tentative  and  critical,  rather 
than  cut-and-dried  or  imitative.  Obviously,  the  or- 
ganization and  management  of  Negro  colleges  at  this 
juncture  call  for  educational  initiative  and  resourceful- 
ness in  unusual  measure. 

It  is  clear  that  under  existing  conditions  only  a  few 
efficient  colleges  for  Negroes  can  or  ought  to  be  main- 
tained. The  organizations  engaged  in  promoting  the 
higher  education  of  the  race  should  therefore  concentrate 
on  a  reduced  number  of  institutions.  In  order  to  obtain 
a  sufficiently  large  number  of  qualified  students  more 
feeding  schools  should  be  developed;  indeed,  some  of  the 
so-called  colleges  might  well  be  converted  into  secondary 
schools  for  this  purpose.  For  the  system  thus  created, 
consisting  of  several  preparatory  schools  and  a  few  col- 
leges, larger  financial  support  should  then  be  arranged. 

Finally,  for  each  of  the  few  colleges  thus  reorganized, 
highly  intelligent  educational  direction  is  required.  The 
function  of  the  head  of  a  Negro  college  is  necessarily 
somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  usual  college  or 
university  president.  He  must,  of  course,  be  a  good 
administrator;  but  a  very  large  part  of  his  energy  must 
be  devoted  to  outright  pedagogical  effort.  He  must  not 
only  select,  but  assist  in  training,  his  teachers;  and  he 
must  by  observation  and  conference  assure  himself  that 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  209 

the  instruction  offered  is  calculated  to  achieve  the  end 
in  view.  For  some  time  to  come  he  will  resemble  a 
principal  or  director  rather  than  a  university  president, 
as  that  officer  is  usually  conceived. 

The  General  Education  Board  has  made  appropri- 
ations to  Negro  colleges  and  universities  as  follows: 

Atlanta  University $    8,000 

Florida  Baptist  Academy 13,000 

Fisk  University 70,000 

Lane  College 7,000 

Livingstone  College 12,500 

Shaw  University         18,000 

Virginia  Union  University 11,500 

Total $140,000 


3n  Q^emoriam 

JABEZ  LAMAR  MONROE  CURRY 
WILLIAM  HENRY  BALDWIN,  JR. 
WILLIAM  RAINEY  HARPER 
MORRIS  KETCHUM  JESUP 
DANIEL  COIT  OILMAN 
ROBERT  CURTIS  OGDEN 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  I 

AN  ACT  TO   INCORPORATE   THE   GENERAL  EDUCATION 
BOARD 

Be  it  Enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress  Assembled. 
That  William  H.  Baldwin,  Jr.,  Jabez  L.  M.  Curry, 
Frederick  T.  Gates,  Daniel  C.  Oilman,  Morris  K.  Jesup, 
Robert  C.  Ogden,  Walter  H.  Page,  George  Foster  Pea- 
body,  and  Albert  Shaw,  and  their  successors,  be,  and 
they  hereby  are,  constituted  a  body  corporate  of  the 
District  of  Columbia;  that  the  name  of  such  body  cor- 
porate shall  be  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD  and 
that  by  such  name  the  said  persons  and  their  successors 
shall  have  perpetual  succession. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  object  of  the  said  corporation  shall 
be  the  promotion  of  education  within  the  United  States 
of  America,  without  distinction  of  race,  sex,  or  creed. 

Sec.  3.  That  for  the  promotion  of  such  object  the 
said  corporation  shall  have  power  to  build,  improve, 
enlarge,  or  equip,  or  to  aid  others  to  build,  improve,  en- 
large, or  equip,  buildings  for  elementary  or  primary 
schools,  industrial  schools,  technical  schools,  normal 
schools,  training  schools  for  teachers,  or  schools  of  any 
grade,  or  for  higher  institutions  of  learning,  or,  in  con- 
nection therewith,  libraries,  workshops,  gardens,  kitchens, 
or  other  educational  accessories;  to  establish,  maintain, 
or  endow,  or  aid  others  to  establish,  maintain,  or  endow, 


212 


APPENDIX  213 

elementary  or  primary  schools,  industrial  schools,  tech- 
nical schools,  normal  schools,  training  schools  for  teach- 
ers, or  schools  of  any  grade,  or  higher  institutions  of 
learning;  to  employ  or  aid  others  to  employ  teachers  and 
lecturers;  to  aid,  cooperate  with,  or  endow  associations 
or  other  corporations  engaged  in  educational  work  within 
the  United  States  of  America,  or  to  donate  to  any  such 
association  or  corporation  any  property  or  moneys  which 
shall  at  any  time  be  held  by  the  said  corporation  hereby 
constituted;  to  collect  educational  statistics  and  informa- 
tion, and  to  publish  and  distribute  documents  and  re- 
ports containing  the  same,  and  in  general  to  do  and 
perform  all  things  necessary  or  convenient  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  object  of  the  corporation. 

Sec.  4.  That  the  said  corporation  shall  further  have 
power  to  have  and  use  a  common  seal  and  to  alter  and 
change  the  same  at  its  pleasure;  to  sue  or  be  sued  in  any 
court  of  the  United  States  or  other  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction;  to  make  by-laws  for  the  admission  or  ex- 
clusion of  its  members,  for  the  election  of  its  trustees, 
officers,  and  agents,  and  otherwise;  for  the  casting  of 
votes  by  its  members  or  trustees  by  proxy;  for  the  pur- 
chase, management,  sale,  or  transfer  of  its  property;  the 
investment  and  control  of  its  funds  and  the  general 
transaction  of  its  business;  to  take  or  receive,  whether 
by  gift,  grant,  devise,  bequest,  or  purchase,  any  real  or 
personal  estate,  or  to  hold,  grant,  convey,  hire,  or  lease 
the  same  for  the  purposes  of  its  incorporation;  to  accept 
and  administer  any  trust  of  money  or  of  real  or  personal 
estate  for  any  educational  purpose  within  the  object  of 
the  corporation  as  aforesaid;  to  prescribe  by  by-laws  or 
otherwise  the  terms  and  conditions  upon  which  money, 
real  estate,  or  personal  estate  shall  be  acquired  or  re- 
ceived by  the  said  corporation,  and  for  the  grant,  trans- 


214   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

fer,  assignment,  or  donation  of  any  or  all  property  of  the 
said  corporation,  real  or  personal,  to  any  society  or  cor- 
poration for  any  of  the  said  purposes  for  which  the  said 
corporation  is  hereby  incorporated,  and  otherwise  gener- 
ally for  the  management  of  the  property  and  the  trans- 
action of  the  business  of  the  corporation. 

Sec.  5.  That  the  members  of  the  corporation  shall 
be  not  less  than  nine  in  number  and  not  more  than  seven- 
teen, as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  by-laws  of  the  corpo- 
ration: provided,  however,  That  if  and  when  the  number  of 
members  shall  be  less  than  nine,  the  members  remaining 
shall  have  power  to  add  and  shall  add  to  their  number 
until  the  number  shall  be  not  less  than  nine :  and  provided 
That  no  act  of  the  corporation  shall  be  void  because  at 
the  time  such  act  shall  be  done  the  number  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  corporation  shall  be  less  than  nine;  that  all 
the  members  of  the  corporation  shall  be  its  trustees;  that 
no  member  of  the  said  association  shall,  by  reason  of 
such  membership  or  his  trusteeship,  be  personally  liable 
for  any  of  its  debts  or  obligations;  that  each  member  of 
the  corporation  shall  hold  his  membership  for  a  term  of 
three  years  and  until  his  successor  shall  be  chosen:  pro- 
vided, however,  That  the  members  shall  be  at  all  times 
divided  into  three  classes  numerically,  as  nearly  as  may 
be,  and  that  the  original  members  shall,  at  their  first 
meeting,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  shall  be  convenient,  be 
divided  into  three  classes,  the  members  of  the  first  class 
to  hold  their  membership  and  office  until  the  expiration 
of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  January  next  after  the 
enactment  of  this  law,  the  members  of  the  second  class 
until  the  expiration  of  two  years  thereafter,  and  the 
members  of  the  third  class  until  the  expiration  of 
three  years  thereafter,  and  that  in  every  case  the  mem- 
ber shall  hold  office  after  the  expiration  of  his  term 


APPENDIX  215 

until  his  successor  shall  be  chosen :  and  provided  further, 
That,  in  case  any  member  shall,  by  death,  resignation, 
incapacity  to  act,  or  otherwise,  cease  to  be  a  member 
during  his  term,  his  successor  shall  be  chosen  to  serve 
for  the  remainder  of  such  term  and  until  his  successor 
shall  be  chosen;  and  that  the  principal  office  of  the 
said  corporation  shall  be  in  the  City  of  Washington, 
District  of  Columbia:  provided.  That  meetings  may  be 
held  elsewhere  within  the  United  States  as  may  be  de- 
termined by  the  members  or  provided  by  the  by-laws. 

Sec.  6.  That  all  real  property  of  the  corporation 
within  the  District  of  Columbia  which  shall  be  used  by 
the  corporation  for  the  educational  or  other  purposes  of 
the  corporation  as  aforesaid,  other  than  the  purpose  of 
producing  income,  and  all  personal  property  and  funds 
of  the  corporation  held,  used,  or  invested  for  educational 
purposes  as  aforesaid,  or  to  produce  income  to  be  used 
for  such  purposes,  shall  be  exempt  from  taxation:  pro- 
vided, however,  That  this  exemption  shall  not  apply  to 
any  property  of  the  corporation  which  shall  not  be  used 
for,  or  the  income  of  which  shall  not  be  applied  to,  the 
educational  purposes  of  the  corporation:  and  provided 
further,  That  the  corporation  shall  annually  file  with  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  of  the  United  States  a  report  in 
writing,  stating  in  detail  the  property,  real  and  personal, 
held  by  the  corporation,  and  the  expenditure  or  other  use 
or  disposition  of  the  same  or  the  income  thereof  during 
the  preceding  year. 

Sec.  7.  That  this  charter  shall  be  subject  to  altera- 
tion, amendment,  or  repeal  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States. 


APPENDIX  II 

LETTERS   ANNOUNCING   GIFTS   TO   THE    GENERAL   EDU- 
CATION   BOARD    AND    REPLIES    THERETO 

(a)  Correspondence  with  Mr.  Rockefeller 

a  r»        -K/T     T>  11    •  "March  i,  1902. 

'Dear  Mr.  Baldwin: 

"My  father  understands  that  William  H.  Baldwin,  Jr., 
Jabez  L.  M.  Curry,  Frederick  T.  Gates,  Daniel  C.  Oil- 
man, Morris  K.  Jesup,  Robert  C.  Ogden,  Walter  H. 
Page,  George  Foster  Peabody,  Albert  Shaw,  have  formed 
themselves  into  an  association  called  the  'General  Educa- 
tion Board,'  pending  the  formalities  necessary  to  incor- 
porate themselves  into  a  corporation  which  shall  be 
known  as  the  '  General  Education  Board  ' ; 

"That  the  object  of  this  Board  is  to  promote  education 
in  the  United  States  of  America  without  distinction  of 
sex,  race,  or  creed; 

"That  the  immediate  intention  of  the  Board  is  to 
devote  itself  to  studying  and  aiding  to  promote  the  edu- 
cational needs  of  the  people  of  our  Southern  States. 

"Upon  this  understanding  my  father  hereby  pledges 
to  the  Board  the  sum  of  One  Million  Dollars  ($1,000,00x5) 
to  be  expended  at  its  discretion  during  a  period  of  ten 
years,  and  will  make  payments  under  such  pledges  from 
time  to  time  as  requested  by  the  Board  or  its  Executive 
Committee  through  its  duly  authorized  officers. 
"Very  truly, 

"(Signed)  JOHN  D.  ROCKEFELLER,  JR. 

"Mr.  William  H.  Baldwin,  Jr.,  Chairman  of  the  General 

Education  Board,  New  York  City." 

216 


APPENDIX  217 

To  this  letter  the  following  reply  was  sent: 

"March  8,  1902. 
"Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  26  Broadway,  New  York. 

"My  DEAR  MR.  ROCKEFELLER:  On  behalf  of  the 
Trustees  of  the  General  Education  Board,  I  beg  to  ac- 
knowledge receipt  of  your  letter  dated  March  ist,  in  which 
pledge  is  made,  in  behalf  of  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  of 
one  million  dollars  to  be  expended  at  the  discretion  of 
the  General  Education  Board  during  a  period  of  ten 
years. 

"I  beg  to  confirm  your  understanding  that  William 
H.  Baldwin,  Jr.,  Jabez  L.  M.  Curry,  Frederick  T.  Gates, 
Daniel  C.  Gilman,  Morris  K.  Jesup,  Robert  C.  Ogden, 
Walter  H.  Page,  George  Foster  Peabody,  Albert  Shaw 
have  formed  themselves  into  an  Association  to  be 
called  the  ;  General  Education  Board,'  with  temporary 
Articles  of  Association  pending  the  formalities  necessary 
to  incorporate  themselves  into  a  corporation  under  Spe- 
cial Charter  from  the  United  States  Congress;  and,  further, 
that  the  object  of  the  Board  is  to  promote  education  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  without  distinction  of 
sex,  race,  or  creed,  and  that  immediate  attention  is  to  be 
given  to  the  promotion  of  the  educational  needs  of  the 
people  in  the  Southern  States. 

"I  beg  further  to  state  that  immediate  steps  were  taken 
through  eminent  counsel,  Mr.  Edward  M.  Shepard,  to 
prepare  a  charter,  which  has  met  with  the  approval  of  the 
members  of  the  Board,  and  that  the  charter  is  now  in  the 
hands  of  United  States  Senator  Aldrich,  to  be  presented 
to  Congress  at  a  favorable  moment. 

"In  accepting  this  munificent  gift  on  behalf  of  the 
Board,  I  wish  to  assure  you  of  the  cordial  and  loyal  sup- 
port which  has  been  shown  by  each  Trustee.  I  believe 


2i8   THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

that  no  set  of  men  could  have  been  selected  to  represent 
more  fully  the  advanced  movement  of  the  education 
of  the  Southern  people.  It  is  our  belief  that  never  in 
the  past  has  the  time  been  so  opportune  as  this  moment 
for  an  active  and  aggressive  movement  in  the  Southern 
States,  and  especially  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  educational 
point  of  view  of  the  Trustees  of  the  General  Education 
Board  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  that  of  the  Southern 
men  who  represent  the  intelligent  opinion  of  the  South. 

"In  return  for  your  generous  offer,  we  pledge  our  de- 
voted support  to  the  principles  which  have  been  laid 
down  in  our  Statement  of  Policy,  and  it  will  be  our  chief 
aim  to  prove  ourselves  worthy  of  the  great  responsibility 
which  you  have  placed  upon  us. 

"I  enclose  you  herewith  a  copy  of  our  Statement  of 
Policy,  together  with  a  copy  of  the  temporary  Articles 
of  Association,  and  a  copy  of  the  proposed  Act  to  Incor- 
porate the  General  Education  Board. 

"This  letter  has  been  approved  by  the  Executive 
Committee  of  the  Board,  at  a  meeting  held  on  Monday, 
March  iyth,  1902. 

"Very  respectfully, 

"(Signed)  W.  H.  BALDWIN, JR., 

"  Chairman." 

On  June  30,  1905,  the  Board  received  the  following 
communication : 

"To  Messrs.  Wallace  Buttrick  and  Starr  J.  Murphy, 
Secretaries  and  Executive  Officers,  General  Education 
Board. 

"DEAR  SIRS :  I  am  authorized  by  Mr.  John  D.  Rocke- 
feller to  say  that  he  will  contribute  to  the  General  Educa- 
tion Board  the  sum  of  ten  million  dollars  ($10,000,000), 


APPENDIX  219 

to  be  paid  October  first  next,  in  cash,  or,  at  his  option,  in 
income  producing  securities,  at  their  market  value,  the 
principal  to  be  held  in  perpetuity  as  a  foundation  for 
education,  the  income  above  expenses  of  administration 
to  be  distributed  to,  or  used  for  the  benefit  of,  such  insti- 
tutions of  learning,  at  such  times,  in  such  amounts,  for 
such  purposes  and  under  such  conditions,  or  employed  in 
such  other  ways,  as  the  Board  may  deem  best  adapted 
to  promote  a  comprehensive  system  of  higher  education 
in  the  United  States. 

"  Yours  very  truly, 
"(Signed)  F.    T.    GATES." 

On  February  7,  1907,  the  Board  received  the  following 
communication: 

"February  5,  1907. 

"General  Education  Board,  54  William  Street,  New  York 

City. 

"GENTLEMEN:  My  father  authorizes  me  to  say  that 
on  or  before  April  i,  1907,  he  will  give  to  the  General 
Education  Board  income  bearing  securities,  the  present 
market  value  of  which  is  about  thirty-two  million  dollars 
($32,000,000),  one-third  to  be  added  to  the  permanent 
endowment  of  the  Board,  two-thirds  to  be  applied  to  such 
specific  objects  within  the  corporate  purposes  of  the 
Board  as  either  he  or  I  may  from  time  to  time  direct,  any 
remainder,  not  so  designated  at  the  death  of  the  survivor, 
to  be  added  to  the  permanent  endowment  of  the  Board. 

"Very  truly, 
"(Signed)  JOHN  D.  ROCKEFELLER,  JR." 

To  this  reply  was  made  as  follows: 


220        THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

"New  York,  February  7,  1907. 

"Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  New  York  City. 

"DEAR  SIR:  The  General  Education  Board  acknowl- 
edges the  receipt  of  the  communication  of  February  5th, 
1907,  from  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  a  member  of  this 
body,  announcing  your  decision  to  give  to  the  Board,  for 
the  purpose  of  its  organization,  securities  of  the  curient 
value  of  thirty- two  million  dollars  ($32,000,000).  The 
General  Education  Board  accepts  this  gift  with  a  deep 
sense  of  gratitude  to  you  and  of  responsibility  to  society. 
This  sum,  added  to  the  eleven  millions  ($11,000,000) 
which  you  have  formerly  given  to  this  Board,  makes  the 
General  Education  Board  the  guardian  and  administra- 
tor of  a  total  trust  fund  of  forty-three  million  dollars 
($43,000,000). 

"This  is  the  largest  sum  ever  given  by  a  man  in  the 
history  of  the  race  for  any  social  or  philanthropic  pur- 
poses. The  Board  congratulates  you  upon  the  high  and 
wise  impulse  which  has  moved  you  to  this  deed,  and  de- 
sires to  thank  you,  in  behalf  of  all  educational  interests 
whose  development  it  will  advance,  in  behalf  of  our  coun- 
try whose  civilization  for  all  time  it  should  be  made  to 
strengthen  and  elevate,  and  in  behalf  of  mankind  every- 
where in  whose  interest  it  has  been  given  and  for  whose 
use  it  is  dedicated. 

"The  administration  of  this  fund  entails  upon  the 
General  Education  Board  the  most  far-reaching  respon- 
sibility ever  placed  upon  any  educational  organization 
in  the  world.  As  members  of  the  Board  we  accept  this 
responsibility,  conscious  alike  of  its  difficulties  and  op- 
portunities. We  will  use  our  best  wisdom  to  transmute 
your  gift  into  intellectual  and  moral  power,  counting  it  a 


APPENDIX  221 

supreme  privilege  to  dedicate  whatever  strength  we  have 
to  its  just  use  in  the  service  of  men. 

''Very  respectfully  yours, 
"(Signed) 

FREDERICK  T.  GATES  JOHN  D.  ROCKEFELLER,  JR. 

DANIEL  C.  OILMAN  WALLACE  BUTTRICK 

MORRIS  K.  JESUP  E.  BENJAMIN  ANDREWS 

ROBERT  C.  OGDEN  HUGH  H.  HANNA 

WALTER  H.  PAGE  STARR  J.  MURPHY 

GEORGE  FOSTER  PEABODY   P^DWIN  A.  ALDERMAN 
ALBERT  SHAW  HOLLIS  B.  FRISSELL 

HARRY  PRATT  JUDSON" 

On  July  7,  1909,  the  Board  received  the  following  com- 
munication: 

"June    29,    1909. 
"  The  General  Education  Board,  2  Rector  Street,  New  York. 

"GENTLEMEN:  My  father  authorizes  me  to  say  that 
on  or  before  August  i,  1909,  he  will  give  to  the  General 
Education  Board  income  bearing  securities,  as  per  the 
accompanying  memorandum,  the  present  market  value 
of  which  is  about  ten  million  dollars  ($10,000,000)  to  be 
added  to  the  permanent  endowment  of  the  Board. 

"He,  however,  authorizes  and  empowers  you  and  your 
successors,  whenever  in  your  discretion  it  shall  seem  wise, 
to  distribute  the  principal  or  any  part  thereof,  provided 
the  same  shall  be  authorized  by  a  resolution  passed  by  the 
affirmative  vote  of  two  thirds  of  all  those  who  shall  at 
the  time  be  members  of  your  Board  at  a  special  meeting 
held  on  not  less  than  thirty  days'  notice  given  in  writing, 
which  shall  state  that  the  meeting  is  called  for  the  pur- 
pose of  considering  a  resolution  to  authorize  the  distri- 
bution of  the  whole  or  some  part  of  the  principal  of  said 


222    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

fund.  Upon  the  adoption  of  such  resolution  in  the  man- 
ner above  described,  you  and  your  successors  shall  be 
and  are  hereby  released  from  the  obligation  thereafter 
to  hold  in  perpetuity  or  as  endowment  such  portion  of  the 
principal  of  such  fund  as  may  have  been  authorized  to  be 
distributed  by  such  resolution. 

"Very  truly, 
"(Signed)  JOHN  D.  ROCKEFELLER,  JR." 

"June  29,  1909. 
"The  General  Education  Board. 

"GENTLEMEN:  I  have  heretofore  from  time  to  time 
given  to  your  Board  certain  property,  the  principal  of 
which  was  to  be  held  in  perpetuity,  or  as  endowment.  I 
now  authorize  and  empower  you  and  your  successors, 
whenever  in  your  discretion  it  shall  seem  wise,  to  distrib- 
ute the  principal  or  any  part  thereof,  provided  the  same 
shall  be  authorized  by  a  resolution  passed  by  the  affirm- 
ative vote  of  two  thirds  of  all  those  who  shall  at  the  time 
be  members  of  your  Board,  at  a  special  meeting  held  on 
not  less  than  thirty  days'  notice  given  in  writing,  which 
shall  state  that  the  meeting  is  called  for  the  purpose  of 
considering  a  resolution  to  authorize  the  distribution  of 
the  whole,  or  some  part  of  the  principal  of  said  funds. 
Upon  the  adoption  of*  such  resolution  in  the  manner 
above  prescribed,  you  and  your  successors  shall  be  and 
are  hereby  released  from  the  obligation  thereafter  to 
hold  in  perpetuity  or  as  endowment  such  portion  of  the 
principal  of  such  funds  as  may  have  been  authorized  to 
be  distributed  by  such  resolution. 

"The  provisions  of  this  letter  shall  not  modify  the  right 
reserved  to  myself  and  my  son  in  the  letter  of  pledge  of 
February  5, 1907,  to  direct  to  what  specific  objects,  within 
the  corporate  purposes  of  the  Board,  two  thirds  of  the 


APPENDIX  223 

property  covered  by  said  pledge  should  be  applied;  but 
in  case  at  the  death  of  the  survivor  of  myself  and  my  son, 
there  shall  be  any  remainder  not  so  designated,  this  re- 
mainder shall  be  included  within  the  provisions  of  this 
letter. 

"Very  truly  yours. 
"(Signed)  JOHN  D.  ROCKEFELLER." 

The  Board  replied  as  follows: 

"July  9,  1909. 
"Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

"DEAR  SIR:  The  General  Education  Board  acknowl- 
edges the  receipt  of  communication  of  June  29th,  1909, 
from  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  a  member  of  this 
Board,  stating  your  purpose,  on  or  before  August  i,  1909, 
to  add  to  the  permanent  endowment  of  the  Board  an 
additional  sum  of  ten  million  dollars. 

"The  Board  accepts  with  gratitude  this  new  proof  of 
your  generosity,  your  zeal  for  an  educated  citizenship  in 
this  democracy,  and  your  confidence,  and  will  endeavor  to 
use  the  gift  with  large-mindedness  and  good  sense,  to  the 
end  that  the  interests  of  society  in  the  Republic  may  be 
increasingly  benefited  by  this  great  foundation. 

"The  Board  begs  to  acknowledge  also  the  receipt  of 
your  personal  communication  of  June  29,  1909,  wherein 
you  authorize  and  empower  the  Board  and  its  successors, 
under  wise  and  proper  regulations,  whenever  in  their 
discretion  it  shall  seem  wise,  to  distribute  the  principal 
of  this  fund  and  all  other  endowment  funds  hitherto 
contributed  by  you  to  this  Board. 

"The  Board  accepts  this  release  from  the  obligation 
to  hold  these  funds  in  perpetuity  as  an  endowment,  with 
a  very  clear  appreciation  of  the  wisdom,  the  long  look- 
ahead,  and  the  faith  in  the  future  manifested  in  the  author- 


224    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

ization.  The  members  of  the  General  Education  Board, 
as  a  body-corporate  and  as  individuals,  are  like-minded 
in  their  understanding  and  in  their  own  determination 
to  use  the  power  you  have  given  them  for  the  public  wel- 
fare, with  patience,  judgment,  and  justice. 

"Very  respectfully  yours, 
"(Signed)  WALLACE  BUTTRICK." 

(b)  Correspondence  with  Miss  Jeanes. 

"George  Foster  Peabody,   Treasurer,  General  Education 
Board: 

"  I  enclose  my  cheque  for  two  hundred  thousand  dollars 
($200,000)  as  Special  Fund  for  assistance  of  the  Negro 
'Rural  Schools'  in  the  South. 

"  (Signed)  ANNA  T.  JEANES." 

The  following  resolutions  were  unanimously  adopted: 

Be  it  resolved,  That  this  Board  accepts  with  gratitude 
the  gift  of  Miss  Anna  T.  Jeanes  of  the  sum  of  "two  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars  ($200,000)  as  a  special  fund  for  as- 
sistance of  the  Negro  'Rural  Schools'  in  the  South.'' 

Resolved,  That  this  fund  be  named  the  Anna  T. 
Jeanes  Fund  for  the  Assistance  of  Negro  Rural  Schools 
in  the  South. 


APPENDIX  III 

CONTRACT   BETWEEN   WASHINGTON   UNIVERSITY 
AXD   BARNES   HOSPITAL 

This  agreement  made  and  entered  into  this  28th  day 
of  October,  A.  D.  1911,  by  and  between  Samuel  M.  Ken- 
nard,  Samuel  Cupples,  and  Murray  Carleton,  Trustees 
of  the  Barnes  Hospital,  under  and  by  the  virtue  of  the 
will  of  Robert  A.  Barnes,  deceased,  for  themselves  and 
their  successors  in  trust,  hereinafter  styled  the  Trustees, 
and  the  Washington  University,  a  corporation  existing 
under  special  charter  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of 
Missouri,  hereinafter  styled  the  University,  witnesseth: 

That  whereas  the  Trustees  have  become  satisfied,  after 
a  thorough  examination  conducted  by  them,  that  the 
efficiency  of  a  hospital  depends,  in  large  part,  upon  the 
ability  of  its  medical  staff,  and  that  a  hospital  can  render 
better  service  to  its  patients  when  it  has  associated  with 
it  an  organized  medical  school  and  scientific  staff,  labora- 
tories, and  dispensary: 

And  whereas  the  University  realizes  from  actual  experi- 
ence that  a  medical  department  of  a  university  is  greatly 
benefited  by  having  a  hospital  connected  with  it  in  which 
it  can  teach  its  students,  from  actual  observation  of  the 
sick,  by  the  student  observing  the  treatment  of  the  sick 
and  injured  at  the  bedside  and  in  the  operating  room: 

Now,  therefore,  the  Trustees,  for  and  in  consideration 
of  the  University  fulfilling  its  agreements  hereinafter 


226    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

made  by  it  in  this  agreement  as  to  building  a  medical 
school,  a  dispensary,  equipping  and  maintaining  the  same, 
and  treating  the  sick  and  injured  in  the  hospital,  hereby 
agrees  that  it  will,  within  twelve  months  after  this  agree- 
ment is  signed,  start  to  build,  and  with  all  reasonable 
dispatch  have  built  for  them  a  first  class  hospital  at  a 
cost  of  not,  less  than  six  hundred  thousand  dollars 
($600,000)  upon  the  ground  now  owned  by  them,  or  which 
may  be  hereinafter  acquired  by  them,  between  Kings- 
highway  on  the  west.  West  Kingshighway  on  the  south, 
Euclid  on  the  east,  and  the  Wabash  Railroad  on  the 
north,  and,  after  the  said  hospital  is  erected,  to  there- 
after, during  the  life  of  this  agreement,  maintain  and 
operate  the  same,  according  to  the  best-known  methods 
of  running  a  hospital;  within  the  limitation  of  their  means 
or  income. 

And  the  Trustees  further  agree  that  the  medical  staff 
of  the  hospital  shall  consist  solely  of  the  teaching  corps 
of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University,  but  in  any 
instance  where  the  Trustees  shall  object  for  good  and 
sufficient  cause,  in  writing  delivered  to  the  University, 
to  the  attendance  at  the  hospital  of  any  member  of  the 
said  teaching  corps,  he  shall  be  withdrawn  from  the 
medical  staff  of  the  hospital  and  the  University  shall 
appoint  in  his  stead  some  other  doctor,  but  no  objection 
shall  be  made  to  any  member  of  the  teaching  corps  be- 
coming or  remaining  a  member  of  the  medical  staff  of 
the  hospital  on  account  of  his  practising  the  theory  of 
medicine  and  practice  taught  by  the  University  for  the 
time  being,  as  long  as  the  Medical  Department  of  the 
University  continues  to  teach  the  theory  of  medicine 
and  practice  most  prevailing  in  the  medical. schools  con- 
nected with  the  leading  universities  of  the  United  States. 
This  clause  is  not  to  be  understood  to  give  the  University 


APPENDIX  227 

a  right  to  have  a  doctor  in  its  teaching  corps  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  allowing  him  to  become  a  member  of  the 
medical  staff  of  the  hospital,  but  he  must  be  an  active 
member  of  the  teaching  corps.  This  clause  is  not  to  be 
understood  that  there  cannot  be  members  of  the  medical 
staff  who  are  not  members  of  the  teaching  corps  of  the 
Medical  Department  of  the  University,  but  if  the  Uni- 
versity and  the  Trustees  wish  to  have  in  the  medical  staff 
of  the  hospital  doctors  who  are  not  members  of  the  teach- 
ing corps  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University, 
the  University  may  suggest  names  to  the  Trustees  and 
the  Trustees  may  appoint  from  such  names,  as  suggested, 
additional  members  to  the  medical  staff  of  the  hospital, 
who  may  be  discharged  or  dropped  from  the  medical  staff 
of  the  hospital  at  the  will  of  the  Trustees  or  at  the  will  of 
the  University. 

And  the  Trustees  further  agree  that  the  medical  staff 
of  the  hospital,  constituted  as  above  provided,  shall  have 
the  exclusive  right  to  render  such  medical  service  as  may 
be  rendered  to  any  patient  of  the  hospital  therein  by 
any  physician  or  surgeon,  and  to  direct  in  all  respects  the 
treatment  therein  of  any  such  patient  or  patients  by 
persons  not  physicians  or  surgeons.  It  is  understood, 
however,  that  any  patient  may  at  his  or  her  request,  or 
at  the  request  of  his  or  her  guardian,  call  into  con- 
sultation any  physician  not  a  member  of  the  medical 
staff. 

And  the  Trustees  further  agree  that  the  members  of 
the  teaching  corps  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the 
University  shall  have  the  fullest  and  exclusive  possible 
right  consistent  with  the  welfare  of  the  patient  to  use  the 
ward  patients  in  the  hospital  for  medical  research  and 
clinical  instruction  to  the  students  of  the  University  and 
medical  staff  of  the  hospital. 


228    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

The  Trustees  further  agree  that  they  will  nominate  a 
man  for  superintendent,  and  appoint  him  upon  the  ap- 
proval of  the  University.  If  the  first  man  nominated 
by  the  Trustees  does  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the 
University,  then  the  Trustees  shall  nominate  another  man 
and  submit  his  name  for  approval  to  the  University. 
If  the  second  man  does  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the 
University,  then  the  University  shall  nominate  a  man  and 
submit  his  name  for  approval  to  the  Trustees,  and,  if  he 
shall  not  receive  the  approval  of  the  Trustees,  the  Uni- 
versity shall  submit  the  name  of  another  for  the  approval 
of  the  Trustees.  If  the  second  name  so  submitted  shall 
not  be  approved  by  the  Trustees,  the  Trustees  shall 
then  proceed  to  appoint  a  superintendent  without  sub- 
mitting his  name  for  approval,  but  the  Trustees  shall 
not  so  appoint  any  man  as  superintendent  whom  they 
have  submitted  for  approval  and  such  approval  been 
refused. 

The  nurses  shall  be  employed,  controlled,  paid,  and 
discharged  by  the  Trustees,  but  when  in  actual  attend- 
ance upon  a  patient  they  shall  be  under  the  direction  of 
the  member  of  the  medical  staff  attending  such  patient, 
and,  if  such  member  objects  to  a  nurse,  she  shall  be  with- 
drawn from  attendance  of  such  patient. 

All  the  agreements  herein  stated  shall  continue  and 
remain  in  force  for  the  term  of  fifty  (50)  years  from  the 
date  hereof. 

Either  party  to  this  agreement  may  abrogate  the  same 
at  the  end  of  thirty  (30)  years  from  the  date  hereof  by 
giving  to  the  other  party  notice  in  writing  not  less  than 
three  (3)  years  prior  thereto  of  their  or  its  intention  to 
abrogate  the  same.  Any  party  giving  such  notice  shall 
not  have  a  right  to  withdraw  the  same  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  other  party. 


APPENDIX  229 

The  Trustees  further  agree  that,  if  the  said  hospital 
shall  be  wholly  or  partially  destroyed  by  fire  or  the  ele- 
ments, they  will  rebuild  or  repair  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  Trustees  hereby  agree  to  make  and  maintain  from 
time  to  time  such  rules  and  regulations  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  carry  into  full  force  and  effect  all  the  terms  and 
provisions  of  this  contract. 

Now  therefore  the  University,  for  and  in  consideration 
of  the  Trustees  fulfilling  their  agreements  hereinbefore  set 
forth,  hereby  agrees  that  it  will,  within  twelve  months 
after  the  signing  of  this  agreement,  start  to  build  and 
with  all  reasonable  dispatch  have  built  for  it  a  first  class 
dispensary  at  a  cost  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars  ($100,000)  on  the  ground  now  owned  by  it, 
or  which  may  hereafter  be  acquired  by  it,  within  the 
boundaries  as  hereinbefore  set  out  for  the  hospital 
site. 

And  it  further  agrees  that  it  will,  within  twelve  months 
after  the  signing  of  this  agreement,  start  to  build  and  with 
all  reasonable  dispatch  have  built  for  it  first  class  medical 
school  buildings  at  a  cost  of  not  less  than  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars  ($200,000)  on  or  near  Euclid  Avenue 
between  the  Wabash  Railroad  right  of  way  and  Chouteau 
Avenue  in  the  City  of  St.  Louis. 

The  University  further  agrees  that  it  will  equip  and 
maintain  in  the  dispensary  and  medical  school  buildings 
all  the  necessary  and  usual  laboratories  that  are  found  in 
well-recognized  dispensaries,  medical  school  buildings, 
and  hospitals,  and  that  such  of  these  laboratories  as  are 
necessary  and  useful  to  a  hospital  shall  be  open  at  such 
times  as  such  laboratories  are  usually  open  in  first  class 
hospitals  for  the  use  of  the  medical  staiT  of  the  hospital. 
And  it  further  agrees  that  it  will  employ  all  necessary 
scientists  for  the  operating  of  its  laboratories,  and  that 


2.^0    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

those  so  employed  shall  do  the  laboratory  work  inci- 
dental and  necessary  to  the  hospital,  free  of  charge  to  the 
hospital  or  its  ward  patients. 

The  University  further  agrees  to  have  only  among  its 
teaching  corps,  and  for  its  scientists  working  in  its  labora- 
tories, doctors  and  scientists  who  are  learned  in  their 
profession. 

The  University  further  agrees  that  the  medical  staff 
shall  treat  all  patients  in  the  wards  of  the  hospital  free 
of  charge,  and  shall  give  to  such  patients  all  proper  medi- 
cal attention. 

It  is  further  agreed  and  understood  by  both  the  Trus- 
tees and  the  University  that  reasonable  and  customary 
charges  for  professional  services  shall  be  made  by  the 
staff  to  pay  patients  occupying  private  rooms. 

The  Trustees  shall  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  collect- 
ing of  fees  due  doctors  for  any  services  rendered  within 
the  hospital.  If  any  patient  or  his  representatives 
shall  object  to  and  dispute  the  charge  made  by  any 
member  of  the  medical  staff  for  services  rendered  in 
the  hospital,  the  same  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Trus- 
tees who  shall  determine  what  the  charge  shall  be,  and 
the  rinding  of  the  Trustees  shall  be  binding  on  the 
physician. 

The  University  further  agrees  that  the  medical  staff 
shall  teach  and  give  the  necessary  instruction  in  the 
hospital,  or  any  other  nearby  place  designated  by  the 
Trustees,  to  the  nurses  and  those  who  are  training  to  be- 
come nurses  in  the  hospital,  free  of  charge  to  the  hospital 
and  to  the  nurses  in  the  hospital. 

In  testimony  whereof  the  Trustees  have  hereunto  set 
their  hands  and  seals  and  the  University  has  caused  these 
presents  to  be  signed,  in  duplicate,  in  its  corporate  name 
by  Robert  S.  Brookings,  its  President,  and  its  corporate 


APPENDIX  231 

seal  duly  attested  to  be  hereunto  attached,  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written. 

NOTE:    THE  ABOVE  CONTRACT  HAS  BEEN  AMENDED  BY  AGREEMENT  OF 
THE  PARTIES  THERETO  AS  FOLLOWS: 

(1)  THE  RIGHT  OF  EITHER  PARTY  TO  ABROGATE  THE  CONTRACT  AT  THE 
END  OF  THIRTY  YEARS  HAS  BEEN  CANCELLED; 

(2)  A   MEMBER    OF   THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  MEDICAL 
SCHOOL  is  TO  ATTEND  THE  MEETINGS  OF  THE  HOSPITAL  TRUSTEES; 

(3)  PROVISION  HAS  BEEN  MADE  LOOKING  TO  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  FULL- 
TIME CLINICAL  DEPARTMENTS,  AS  DESCRIBED  IN  PP.  I68-Q  OF  THIS  REPORT. 

CONTRACT    BETWEEN    WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY 

AND     BARNES     HOSPITAL    REGARDING 

TRAINING  SCHOOL  FOR  NURSES 

THIS  AGREEMENT  made  and  entered  into  this 
26th  day  of  June,  1914,  by  and  between  the  Washington 
University,  a  corporation  existing  under  special  charter 
under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  Missouri,  hereinafter 
styled  the  University,  party  of  the  first  part,  and  Samuel 
M.  Kennard,  Murray  Carleton,  and  Lon  V.  Stephens, 
Trustees  of  the  Barnes  Hospital,  under  and  by  virtue  of 
the  will  of  Robert  A.  Barnes,  deceased,  for  themselves  and 
their  successors  in  trust,  hereinafter  styled  the  Trustees, 

WITXESSETH:  WHEREAS  the  Nurses'  Training  School 
of  the  University  has  been  and  now  is  training 
nurses  for  the  Washington  University  Hospital  and  the 
St.  Louis  Children's  Hospital,  and  has  rendered  to  each 
an  exact  account  of  the  expense  of  such  training,  including 
room  rent,  board,  etc.,  etc.,  but  making  no  charge  for 
the  service  of  its  medical  teaching  staff,  each  of  said 
hospitals  paying  its  proportion  of  said  cost  in  the  ratio 
of  the  nurses  furnished  each;  and 

WHEREAS  the  Trustees  under  a  contract  with  said 
University  have  obligated  themselves  to  pay  all  expenses 


23  2    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

connected  with  the  training  of  their  nurses,  except  such 
teaching  service  as  is  rendered  by  the  said  University's 
medical  staff,  but  had  expected  to  house  and  board  all  of 
its  own  nurses  pending  the  expected  gift  of  a  Nurses' 
Home;  and 

WHEREAS  no  such  gift  has  as  yet  been  realized,  and 
it  is  evident  that  the  Barnes  Hospital  will  not  be  able, 
with  its  present  accommodations,  to  properly  care  for 
said  nurses; 

Now,  THEREFORE,  in  consideration  of  the  facts 
above  recited,  the  Trustees,  parties  of  the  second  part, 
hereby  agree  that  if  the  University,  party  of  the  first 
part,  will  proceed  to  erect  a  part  of  the  proposed  Nurses' 
Home,  and  furnish  the  same  and  build  fence,  the  Uni- 
versity may  charge  as  rent  for  said  Home  five  per  cent. 
(5%)  °n  the  cost  of  building,  furnishings,  and  fence  (no 
charge  to  be  made  for  the  building  lot),  and  the  said 
Trustees  will  pay  their  proportion  of  said  rent,  and  the 
maintenance  of  said  Home,  in  the  ratio  the  number  of 
nurses  working  in  the  Barnes  Hospital  shall  bear  to  the 
total  number  of  nurses  housed  in  the  Nurses'  Home  above 
referred  to. 

In  testimony  whereof,  the  University  has  caused  these 
presents  to  be  signed,  in  duplicate,  in  its  corporate 
name  by  Robert  S.  Brookings,  its  President,  and  its 
corporate  seal  duly  attested  to  be  hereunto  attached, 
and  the  Trustees  have  hereunto  set  their  hands  and 
seals,  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

CONTRACT   BETWEEN   YALE   UNIVERSITY  AND   NEW 
HAVEN  HOSPITAL 

This  agreement,  between  Yale  University,  a  corpora- 
tion existing  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  Connecticut, 


APPENDIX  233 

and  located  in  the  City  of  New  Haven,  in  said  State, 
hereinafter  called  "The  University,"  and  The  General 
Hospital  Society  of  Connecticut,  a  corporation  also  ex- 
isting under  the  laws  of  said  State  and  located  in  said 
City,  hereinafter  called  "The  Hospital,"  Witnesseth, 
that, 

Whereas,  the  Hospital  maintains,  and  has  for  many 
years  maintained  a  general  hospital  situated  in  said  City 
of  New  Haven,  on  a  tract  of  land  bounded  northerly 
by  Davenport  Avenue,  easterly  by  Cedar  Street,  south- 
erly by  Congress  Avenue,  and  westerly  by  Howard 
Avenue;  and 

Whereas,  the  University  maintains,  and  has  for  many 
years  maintained,  in  said  city  a  department  of  medicine 
known  as  the  Yale  Medical  School,  in  which  instruction 
is  given  to  students  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  medi- 
cine and  surgery;  and 

Whereas,  the  parties  hereto  are  united  in  the  belief 
that  a  closer  alliance  between  them  will  render  the  Hos- 
pital more  useful  to  its  patients  and  to  the  community, 
and  will  benefit  said  University  by  enabling  it  to  give 
the  best  clinical  instruction  to  its  students,  and  afford 
the  best  opportunities  for  advanced  study  and  scientific 
research ;  and 

Whereas,  it  is  deemed  necessary  by  both  parties  hereto 
that  the  sum  of  at  least  six  hundred  thousand  dollars 
(S6oo,ooo)  be  raised  and  used  for  the  purposes  herein- 
after expressed,  and  said  University  has  not  available 
the  necessary  funds  for  such  purposes,  but  is  endeavoring 
to  raise  the  same  as  part  of  a  comprehensive  plan  to  in- 
crease the  endowment  and  efficiency  both  of  the  Hospital 
and  of  the  Medical  School;  and 

Whereas,  in  the  opinion  of  the  parties  hereto,  it  will 
materially  aid  in  obtaining  such  sum  of  money  by  gift 


234         THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

or  otherwise  that  the  agreement  of  the  parties  hereto 
be  reduced  to  writing,  as  hereinafter  expressed;  and 

Whereas,  this  agreement  is  not  to  become  operative 
and  effective  unless  and  until  said  University  gives  the 
written  notice  hereinafter  stated : 

Now,  therefore,  the  parties  hereto,  in  consideration  of 
the  mutual  covenants  hereinafter  expressed,  do  hereby 
agree  as  follows: 

First:  This  agreement  shall  take  effect  and  become 
operative  upon  receipt  prior  to  July  ist,  1914,  by  the 
President  of  the  Hospital,  of  written  notice  from  the 
University,  that  the  University  has  acquired  or  set  apart 
not  less  than  six  hundred  thousand  dollars  ($600,000) 
which  it  agrees  to  use  for  the  purposes  hereinafter  stated. 
If  such  notice  is  not  received  by  said  President,  prior  to 
July  ist,  1914,  then  this  agreement  shall  be  null,  void, 
and  of  no  effect. 

Second:  Upon  and  after  the  giving  and  receiving  of 
such  notice  prior  to  said  date: 

(i)  The  University  agrees  to  pay  to  the  Hospital,  as 
hereinafter  stated,  such  amount  as  shall  be  required  to 
completely  erect  and  fully  equip  in  a  workmanlike  and 
proper  manner,  and  with  all  suitable  technical  and  other 
apparatus,  on  said  land  belonging  to  the  Hospital,  a 
fire-proof  building,  similar  in  character,  design,  and 
standard  of  construction  and  equipment  to  the  new  ad- 
ministration building  to  be  built  by  the  Hospital,  to 
be  used  as  a  clinical  and  pathological  laboratory,  to  be 
known  by  such  name  as  the  University  may  direct,  and 
pursuant  to  plans  and  specifications  to  be  approved  by 
the  Corporation  of  Yale  University,  or  some  agent  ap- 
pointed by  said  Corporation  for  that  purpose,  and  by  the 
Directors  of  the  Hospital.  The  cost  of  said  building  shall 
not  exceed  $115,000  and  the  cost  of  said  equipment  shall 


APPENDIX  235 

not  exceed  $10,000  unless  otherwise  mutually  agreed. 
Said  money  shall  be  paid  by  the  University  to  the  Hos- 
pital in  installments  upon  the  written  order  or  request 
of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Hospital,  or  a  major- 
ity thereof,  in  order  that  the  Hospital  may  be  put  in 
funds  to  meet  the  payments  as  they  shall  severally  be- 
come due  under  any  contract  or  contracts  executed  by  the 
Hospital  for  the  erection  and  furnishing  of  said  labo- 
ratory, and  for  the  purchase  of  said  suitable  technical  and 
other  apparatus  to  be  used  therein. 

(2)  The  University  further  agrees  to  hold  and  man- 
age the  balance  of  said  fund  of  six  hundred  thousand 
dollars    ($600,000)    as   an    endowment    fund,  with    full 
power  to  sell  and  convey  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  in 
its  discretion,  and  to  invest  and  reinvest  the  proceeds  of 
such  sale  or  sales,  and  keep  said  fund  invested  either 
separately  and  apart  from  the  other  funds  held  by  the 
University  or  to  mingle  the  same  with  such  other  funds 
and  not  to  keep  the  same  separately  invested,  and  to 
collect  and  receive  the  income  thereof  from  time  to  time 
accruing.     If  such  fund  is  not  kept  separately  invested, 
then  the  income  thereof  for  each  year  shall  be  deemed  to 
be  such  sum  as  is  equivalent  to  the  annual  interest,  cal- 
culated at  the  end  of  each  year,  upon  said  balance  to- 
gether with  any  accumulations  that  may  be  added  thereto 
from  time  to  time,  at  the  average  rate  of  income  derived 
during  each  preceding  year  by  the  University  from  all  its 
general  invested  funds.     The  judgment  and  determina- 
tion of  the  Treasurer  of  the  University  as  to  such  aver- 
age rate,  the  value  of  such  invested  funds,  the  equivalent 
of  said  annual  income,  and  all  other  conditions  which 
may  be  necessary  in  order  to  determine  such  equivalent 
shall  be  final  and  conclusive. 

(3)  The  University  further  agrees  to  expend  the  in- 


236    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

come  of  the  balance  of  said  fund  or  its  equivalent  calcu- 
lated as  aforesaid,  together  with  any  additional  sum  or 
sums  of  money  that  may  be  needed  from  time  to  time, 
for  the  payment  of  salaries  and  other  expenses  herein- 
after agreed  to  be  paid  by  the  University.  If  the  income 
of  said  balance  or  its  equivalent  calculated  as  aforesaid 
shall  be  more  than  sufficient  to  pay  said  salaries  and  ex- 
penses, said  excess  shall  be  applied  by  the  University 
for  such  purposes  of  the  Meclical  School  in  connection 
with  the  Hospital  as  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
Hospital  and  the  Executive  Board  of  said  Medical  School 
shall  agree,  or,  failing  such  agreement,  such  excess  shall 
be  added  to  the  principal  of  said  fund. 

(4)  The  University  hereby  further  agrees  to  pay 
from  time  to  time  out  of  the  income  of  said  fund  or  its 
equivalent  calculated  as  aforesaid,  or  out  of  other  moneys 
belonging  to  the  University,  if  said  income  or  its  equiv- 
alent is  not  sufficient  for  such  purposes,  for  all  proper  and 
necessary  repairs  on  all  technical  apparatus  used  in  said 
building  and  for  the  replacement  of  such  apparatus  as 
may  be  worn  out  or  destroyed  and  reasonably  necessary 
to  be  replaced,  including  the  expense  of  all  chemicals  and 
destructible  supplies,  and  to  pay  the  salaries  of  all  needed 
scientific  and  educational  workers  in  said  laboratory, 
including  a  resident  pathologist  and  bacteriologist,  an 
assistant,  a  technician  in  pathology,  a  technician  in  sur- 
gery, a  technician  in  medicine,  a  radiographer,  a  historian, 
head  internes  in  medicine,  surgery,  and  pathology,  who 
shall  each  render  his  appropriate  service  to  the  Hospital 
and  its  patients,  and  the  University  shall  also  pay  the 
salaries  of  a  janitor  or  janitors,  if  more  than  one  is  rea- 
sonably necessary,  to  be  employed  in  or  about  said  labo- 
ratory, and  to  be  appointed  by  the  University;  provided, 
however,  that  said  appointees  named  in  this  paragraph 


APPENDIX  237 

shall  be  acceptable  to  the  Hospital  and  subject  to  all 
reasonable  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Hospital. 

Third:     Upon  and  after  the  giving  and  receiving  of 
such  notice  prior  to  said  date: 

(1)  The  Hospital  agrees  to  completely  erect  and  fully 
equip,  in  a  workmanlike  and  proper  manner,  and  with 
all  suitable  technical  and  other  apparatus,  on  said  land, 
a  fireproof  building  of  the  character  hereinbefore  speci- 
fied, to  be  used  as  a  clinical  and  pathological  laboratory 
to  be  known  by  such  name  as  the  University  may  direct, 
and  pursuant  to  plans  and  specifications  to  be  approved 
as  aforesaid,  and  to  pay  for  the  same  out  of  said  fund  to 
be  provided  by  the  University  as  hereinbefore  stated, 
and  the  Hospital  agrees  to  keep  and  maintain  said  build- 
ing in  good  repair  during  the  continuance  of  this  agree- 
ment. 

(2)  The  Hospital  hereby  further  agrees  to  permit  the 
Corporation  of  Yale  University  to  nominate,  as  vacancies 
occur,  suitable  persons  for  the  positions  of  attending 
physicians,   surgeons,   and  specialists  in  medicine  and 
surgery  on  the  staff  of  the  Hospital,  also  for  the  positions 
of  resident  bacteriologist  and  pathologist,  an  assistant, 
a  technician  in  pathology,  a  technician  in  surgery,  a 
technician  in  medicine,  a  radiographer,  a  historian,  head 
internes    in    medicine,    surgery,    and    pathology    above 
mentioned;  it  being  agreed  that  the  University  shall 
appoint  one  or  more  janitors,  if  more  than  one  is  reason- 
ably necessary  to  be  employed  in  or  about  said  labora- 
tory.    And  the  Hospital  further  agrees  that  all  of  said 
positions,  except  the  position  of  janitor  of  said  laboratory, 
shall  be  filled  by  election  by  the  Directors  of  said  Hos- 
pital upon  such  nominations  and  not  otherwise,  it  being 
agreed,    however,    that    the   physicians,    surgeons,    and 
specialists  connected  with  the  Hospital  at  the  time  this 


238         THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

agreement  becomes  effective  shall  continue  in  the  service 
of  the  Hospital  until  each  shall  respectively  resign  his 
position,  or  until  the  term  of  service  of  each  shall  ter- 
minate pursuant  to  the  present  regulations  of  the  Hos- 
pital. If  any  such  nomination  is  objected  to  by  vote  of 
the  Directors  of  the  Hospital  duly  passed  at  a  meeting 
duly  held,  such  nomination  shall  be  withdrawn  upon  the 
written  request  of  said  Directors,  or  a  majority  of  them, 
stating  the  grounds  of  their  objections  thereto,  and 
another  nomination  shall  be  promptly  substituted  therefor 
until  a  nomination  satisfactory  to  said  Directors  shall 
be  made;  it  being  the  intent  of  this  agreement  that  the 
Hospital  shall  secure  for  the  treatment  of  its  patients  the 
greatest  degree  of  medical  and  surgical  skill  that  can  be 
furnished  by  said  Medical  School.  It  is  further  agreed 
that  in  case  of  failure  to  secure  a  nomination  or  nomina- 
tions satisfactory  to  the  Hospital  Directors  after  six 
months  from  the  time  when  any  vacancy  shall  occur,  and 
after  three  nominations  for  said  vacancy  shall  have  been 
made  by  said  Corporation,  the  names  of  such  nominees 
shall  be  submitted  to  the  arbitrators  hereinafter  men- 
tioned, who  shall  report  upon  the  fitness  or  unfitness  of 
such  nominees  and  their  relative  standing  and  merits. 
Thereafter  such  vacancy  shall  be  filled  by  the  Directors 
of  the  Hospital  from  the  nominees  approved  by  the  arbi- 
trators as  fit  for  said  vacancy,  and  if  none  is  so  approved 
the  Corporation  shall  submit  additional  nominations. 

The  Hospital  further  agrees  to  suffer  and  permit  the 
physicians,  surgeons,  and  others  elected  by  the  Hospital 
as  aforesaid  to  use  the  public  wards,  laboratories,  and 
other  buildingsof  the  Hospital,  wherever  located,  for  teach- 
ing purposes,  according  to  the  most  approved  practice, 
consistent  always  with  the  welfare  of  patients  and  under 
the  reasonable  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Hospital, 


APPENDIX  239 

from  the  first  day  of  October  in  each  year  until  the  first 
day  of  the  following  June  in  each  year  and  for  such  further 
period  in  each  year  as  may  be  mutually  agreed  upon 
by  the  parties. 

(3)  The  Hospital  hereby  further  agrees,  after  said 
laboratory  has  been  completely  erected  and  fully  equipped 
as  hereinbefore  provided,   to  pay  all  expenses  for  the 
maintenance  and  repairs  of  said  building,  and  to  furnish 
at  its  own  expense  heat,   electric    light   and    current, 
water  and  gas  for  said  building,  it  being  the  intent  of 
this  agreement  that  the  University  shall  pay  for  the  sal- 
aries of  the  persons  above  enumerated,  and  in  addition 
thereto  the  expenses  connected  with  the  educational  or 
scientific  work  carried  on  in  said  laboratory  and  Hospital, 
and  that  the  expenses  for  the  general  care,  except  janitor 
service,  and  for  the  maintenance  and  repairs  of  said 
building,  and  of  heat,  electric  light  and  current,  water  and 
gas  to  be  furnished  and  used  in  said  building  shall  be  paid 
by  the  Hospital. 

(4)  In  case  of  any  disputes  and  differences  between 
the  Hospital   and   the  University  in   reference   to  any 
matter  or  thing  arising  out  of,  or  connected  with,  this 
agreement,  each  of  such  differences  and  disputes  shall  be 
submitted  to  the  determination  and  award  of  three  ar- 
bitrators, one  of  whom  shall  be  the  President  of  the  Hos- 
pital, or  some  person  appointed  in  writing  by  him;  the 
second,  the  President  of  the  University,  or  some  person 
appointed  in  writing  by  him;  and  the  third  to  be  ap- 
pointed in  writing  by  said  other  two  persons,  and  in  case 
such  third  arbitrator  is  not  so  appointed  within  thirty- 
days  after  the  appointment  of  the  other  two  arbitrators, 
the  third  arbitrator  may  upon  request  in  writing  of  one 
of  the  other  two  arbitrators  be  appointed  in  writing  by 
the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Connecticut,  or 


240    THE  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD 

by  the  Senior  Associate  Justice  in  case  of  vacancy  in  the 
office,  and  said  arbitrators  shall  thereupon  proceed  to 
determine  all  differences  and  disputes  submitted  to  them, 
in  writing,  by  said  parties,  in  such  way  and  manner  as  to 
them,  or  a  majority  of  them,  may  seem  best,  with  or 
without  notice  or  hearing,  and  upon  principles  of  justice 
and  equity.  The  decision  of  said  arbitrators,  or  a  major- 
ity of  them,  shall  be  reduced  to  writing,  and  duplicate 
originals  thereof  shall  be  signed  by  said  arbitrators,  or  a 
majority  of  them,  and  delivered  one  to  the  Hospital  and 
one  to  the  University,  and  such  decision  shall  be  final  and 
conclusive  upon  the  parties  hereto. 

(5)  This  agreement  may  be  terminated  by  mutual 
consent;  or,  after  ten  years,  by  either  party  under  and 
pursuant  to  the  conditions  hereinafter  provided.  If 
two-thirds  of  the  members  of  the  Corporation  of  Yale 
University  or  two-thirds  of  the  Directors  of  the  Hospital 
shall,  at  two  meetings,  with  an  intervening  interval  of 
not  less  than  six  or  more  than  nine  months,  vote  in  favor 
of  terminating  the  agreement,  the  Secretary  of  said  Cor- 
poration or  the  Secretary  of  the  Hospital,  as  the  case  may 
be,  shall  give  written  notice  to  the  other  of  said  action, 
and  said  agreement  shall  terminate  five  years  after  the 
receipt  of  said  written  notice  or  earlier  if  the  parties  shall 
so  agree  or  if  the  arbitrators  shall  so  order.  If  the  agree- 
ment shall  be  terminated  by  the  University  the  labora- 
tory building  to  be  built  on  said  Hospital  grounds  shall 
be  and  remain  the  property  of  the  Hospital,  and  the  bal- 
ance of  said  fund  shall  be  and  remain  the  property  of  the 
University,  and  in  such  case  the  income  thereof  or  its 
equivalent  shall  thereafter  be  used  for  the  purposes  of 
the  Medical  School.  If  the  agreement  shall  be  terminated 
by  the  Hospital  the  balance  of  said  fund  shall  be  and  re- 
main the  property  of  the  University  as  aforesaid  and  the 


APPENDIX  241 

Hospital  shall  pay  to  the  University  the  then  fair  value 
of  said  laboratory  building  and  its  equipment,  which 
value  shall  be  determined  by  agreement  of  the  parties,  or 
failing  such  agreement,  the  question  of  said  value  shall 
be  submitted  to  the  determination  and  award  of  the  three 
arbitrators  appointed  under  the  provision  of  the  fourth 
section  of  this  agreement.  The  decision  of  said  arbi- 
trators shall  be  final  and  conclusive  upon  the  parties 
hereto. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  hereto  have  caused  to 
be  subscribed  their  names,  and  their  corporate  seals 
affixed,  this  2Qth  day  of  May,  1913,  and  to  a  duplicate 
hereof,  of  like  tenor  and  date. 


INDEX 


INDEX 

Agnes  Scott  College,  appropriation  to  and  Andrews,  E.  Benjamin,  member  of  General 

total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156.  Education  Board,  xiv. 

Agricultural  College  of  Ontario,  its  meth-  Annual  Conference  for  Education  in  the 

ods  studied,  21.  South,  influence  on  later  organizations. 

Agricultural  high  schools,  established   in  n. 

Alabama  and  Mississippi,  87;  state  ap-  Appropriations  by  state  legislatures  for 
propriations  for,  97.  farm  demonstration  work,  49. 
Alabama, cooperates  with  Peabody  Fund  in  Appropriations  of  General  Education 
holding  teachers'  institutes,  10;  salaries  Board  for  farm  demonstration  work,  46; 
of  educational  officers.  19;  state  school  Girls' Canning  Clubs,  65;  secondary  edu- 
fund,  1903,  19;  low  salaries  of  teachers,  cation,  92;  colleges  and  universities.  143; 
20;  extent  of  farm  demonstration  total  amount  to  colleges,  156;  Johns 
work  in,  37;  increased  yield  cotton  by  Hopkins  Medical  School,  167;  Washing- 
demonstration  methods,  51;  high  school  ton  University  Medical  School,  170; 
conditions  of,  73,  77;  private  schools,  74;  Yale  University  Medical  Dent.,  171; 
Professor  of  Secondary  Education  pro-  state  supervisors  of  Negro  rural  schools, 
vided  for,  82;  county  agricultural  high  196. 

schools  established,  87;  requirements  to  Appropriations  of  general  government  lor 

obtain   high  schools,  88;   number  high  farm   demonstration   work,   and   where 

schools  established  and  pupils  enrolled,  expended,  35. 

90;  privatesubscriptionsfor  high  schools,  Arkansas,  extent  of  farm  demonstration 
92;  state  apportionment  for  high  schools,  work  in,  37;  Professor  of  Secondary  Edu- 
92;  appropriations  General  Education  cation  provided  for,  82;  raises  qualifica- 
Board  for  secondary  education.  93;  total  tions  for  teachers.  87;  state  grants  in  aid 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges,  156;  de-  of  high  schools,  87;  number  of  high 
votes  one  half  net  revenue  to  education,  schools  established,  oo;  number  high 
182;  unfavorable  educational  conditions.  school  pupils  enrolled,  91;  number  high 
183;  creates  supervisor  of  Negro  rural  school  teachers,  91;  appropriations  of 
schools,  195;  summer  institutes  for  Ne-  General  Education  Board  for  secondary 
gro  teachers.  200;  Negro  schools  aided  education,  93;  state  aid  law  for  high 
by  Jeanes  Fund,  202.  schools,  93;  total  amount  subscribed  to 
Alcorn,  Miss.,  normal  school,  for  Negroes  colleges  in,  156;  annual  expenditure  for 
in.  192.  public  schools,  182;  recent  developments 
Alderman,  Edwin  A.,  member  of  General  in  rural  education,  18=;;  creates  su(>er- 
Education  Board,  xiv.  visor  of  Negro  rural  schools.  195;  sum- 
Allegheny  College,  appropriations  to  and  mer  institutes  for  Negro  teachers,  200. 

total  amount  of  subscriptions,  150.  Atlanta  University,  appropriation  of  Gen- 
American     Baptist     Education     Society,  eral  Education  Board,  209. 

work  of.  6. 

American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  Baldwin.  \V.  H..  Jr..  member  of  General 

early  efforts  in  Negro  education.  191.  Education  Board,  xiii.  3. 

Americus  Institute,  aided  by  General  Edu-  Baker   University,   territory    from    which 

cation  Board.  203.  students  are  drawn.  124;  appropriation 

American    Missionary    Association,    early  to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions. 

efforts  in  Negro  education,  191.  158. 

Amherst    College,    territory    from    which  Barnard    College,    appropriation    to   and 

students  are  drawn.  1.50;  appropriation  total  amount  of  subscriptions.  159. 

to  and  total  amount   of   subscriptions.  Baton  Rouge.  I.a..  normal  school  (or  Ne- 

159.  grocs,  192. 

245 


246 


INDEX 


Baylor  University,  territory  from  which 
studentsaredrawn,  124;  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Beloit  College,  territory  from  which  stu- 
dents are  drawn,  124;  appropriations  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Board  of  Missions  for  Freedmen,  early  ef- 
forts in  Negro  education,  191. 

Bowdoin  College,  territory  from  which  stu- 
dents are  drawn,  121;  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Boys' Corn  Clubs, appropriation  of  General 
Education  Board  tor,  1 7 ;  objects  of  and 
how  conducted,  57;  growth  of,  showing 
number  enrolled,  59;  average  yields  of 
throughout  South,  59. 

Brown  University,  relationship  to  religious 
denomination,  139;  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Bryn  Mawr  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Bucknell  University,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  in  charge  of 
farm  demonstration  work,  27,  40. 

Buttrick,  Dr.  Wallace,  secretary  and  mem- 
ber of  General  Education  Board,  xiii,  3; 
general  agent  Slater  Fund,  10. 

Calhoun,  Ala.,  Negro  school  at,  191. 

California,  total  amount  subscribed  to  col- 
leges, 158. 

Canning  and  Poultry  Clubs,  formation  of, 
62;  success  among  Negro  girls,  197;  con- 
ference of,  198. 

Canning  Club  Day,  a  social  occasion,  66. 

Carleton  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv. 

Central  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Chamber  of  Commerce  of  City  of  New 
York,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Claflin  University,  aided  by  Slater  Fund,  10. 

Coe  College,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

College  finance,  varied  systems  of  account- 
ing, 147. 

College  of  St.  Thomas,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Colleges  and  universities,  appropriations 
for,  17;  chapter  on,  103;  number  and 
character  of,  109;  too  many  inefficient, 
109;  financial  situation,  113;  minimum 
income  necessary,  113;  policy  of  the 
General  Education  Board,  116;  laws  of 
college  growth— importance  of  location, 
119;  territory  from  which  students  are 
drawn,  121;  larger  opportunities  of  loca- 
tion in  cities,  136;  denominational  insti- 


tutions, 139;  importance  of  increasing 
endowments,  142;  how  funds  are  ob- 
tained, 144,  146,  148;  college  finance, 
147;  General  Education  Board's  reasons 
for  declining  to  aid  certain  colleges,  147; 
improvement  in  accounting,  149;  defini- 
tion of  terms  in  accounting,  150;  en- 
dowment funds  to  be  kept  intact,  151; 
educational  and  business  budgets,  152; 
differentiation  of  departments,  153; 
effect  of  contributions  of  General  Educa- 
tion Board,  153;  stimulated  by  coopera- 
tion of  General  Education  Board,  154; 
total  subscriptions  of  General  Education 
Board,  155;  subscriptions  to  colleges  by 
sections,  156. 

Colorado,  comparison  of  high  schools  with 
South  Carolina,  102;  appropriations  to 
and  total  amount  subscribed  to  colleges 
in,  158. 

Colorado  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  124;  appropriations 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
158. 

Conference  for  Education  in  the  South,  ob- 
jects of,  179;  brings  about  solidarity  in 
educational  endeavor,  181. 

Conferences,  Girls'  Canning  and  Poultry 
Clubs,  198;  Southern  County  Superin- 
tendents, 14;  Southern  state  superin- 
tendents, 188. 

Connecticut,  total  amount  subscribed  to 
colleges  in,  159. 

Contributions  to  education,  private,  5,  103, 
105-109. 

Converse  College,  appropriations  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Cooperative  farm  demonstration  move- 
ment, 22. 

Corn,  increased  yield  by  demonstration 
methods,  50,  55;  success  of  Boys'  Corn 
Clubs  in  raising  yield,  59. 

Cornell  College,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Cotton,  threatened  by  boll  weevil,  23; 
scientific  methods  for  growing  demon- 
strated by  Dr.  Knapp,  23,  27;  increased 
yield  by  demonstration  methods,  32, 
SO,  55- 

Cotton  boll  weevil,  rampant  in  Texas,  23; 
Congress  makes  special  appropriation 
for  combating,  25. 

County  agricultural  high  schools,  estab- 
lished in  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  87. 

Cromer,  Miss  Marie,  inaugurates  canning 
clubs  for  girls,  63. 

Crop  diversification,  efforts  to  induce,  52. 

Curriculum,  high  school,  95. 

Curry,  Dr.  J.  L.  M.,  as  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiii,  3;  general  agent 
of  Peabody  Education  Fund,  9;  gen- 
eral agent  of  Slater  Fund,  10. 


INDEX 


247 


Dairy  and  stock  farming  succeeds  tobacco 
in  Virginia,  52. 

Dakota  Wesleyan  University,  appropria- 
tion to  and  total  amount  of  subscrip- 
tions, 158. 

Dartmouth  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  127, 

Dashiell,  L.  M.,  Assistant  Treasurer  of 
General  Education  Board,  viii. 

Davidson  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Demonstration  work,  see  Farm  Demonstra- 
tion Work. 

Denominational  institutions,  relationship 
of  colleges  to,  139. 

De  Pauw  University,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Dillard,  Dr.  James  H.,  general  agent  Slater 
Fund,  10;  President  of  Board  and  direc- 
tor Jeanes  Fund,  ii  Note. 

Diversification  of  crops  for  Southern 
farmer,  30,  52. 

Drake  University,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Drury  College,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Earlham  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions.  157. 

Education,  efforts  of  Southern  States  and 
educational  bodies.8;  elementary  schools 
in  South,  71;  high  schools,  72;  auxiliary 
schools,  73;  private  secondary  schools, 
74;  preparatory  schools,  7.5;  secondary 
school  in  relation  to  college,  77,  98;  be- 
ginnings of  improvement,  79;  Professors 
of  Secondary  Education  provided  for  by 
General  Education  Board,  81;  favorable 
legislation,  86;  number  of  high  schools, 
and  student  enrolments,  oo;  appropria- 
tions of  General  Education  Board,  92; 
the  high  school  curriculum,  95;  high 
school  consolidation,  101 ; 

Education,  Medical,  see  Medical  educa- 
tion. 

Education,  Negro,  see  Negro  education. 

Education,  rural,  see  Rural  education. 

Educational  conditions  in  the  South.  18. 

Educational  conferences,  appropriations 
for,  17. 

Educational  survey  of  the  South,  12. 

Eliot,  Charles  W.,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv. 

Elmira  College,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Emory  and  Henry  College,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Factoring  system,  economic  fallacy  of,  30. 

Farm  demonstration  work,  appropriations 
for,  17;  origin  of,  22;  Dr.  Knapp  es- 
tablishes demonstration  farm  to  combat 


boll  weevil,  23;  General  Education 
Board  cooperates  with  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  25;  work  in  charge 
of  Department  of  Agriculture,  27,  40; 
Dr.  Knapp's  ten  agricultural  command- 
ments, 29;  his  teaching  of  business  man- 
agement and  diversified  farming,  30; 
leads  to  higher  development  and  better- 
ment of  rural  life,  29,  53,  55,  68;  in- 
creased yield  of  cotton  by  demon- 
stration methods,  32;  work  extended 
throughout  South,  35;  location  of  agents 
(1009),  34;  proportion  of  work  done  by 
Government  and  by  General  Education 
Board,  27,  35,  45;  work  of  state  agricul- 
tural colleges,  37,  42  Note;  number  and 
classification  of  instructors  in  field,  42; 
map  showing  demonstration  farms  in 
Maine,  43;  in  New  Hampshire,  44; 
duties  of  agents,  46;  appropriations  t>y 
Government.  General  Education  Board, 
and  others,  46;  map  of  Bulloch  County, 
Georgia,  showing  disposal  of  agents,  47; 
Southern  people  paying  large  part  of 
expense,  49;  results  in  increased  yield 
and  profits,  50;  crop  diversification,  52; 
work  among  Negro  farmers,  54;  work 
as  yet  inadequate,  56;  movement  creat- 
ing new  problems  in  transportation  and 
marketing,  57;  Boys'  Corn  Clubs,  57; 
Girls'  Canning  and  Poultry  Clubs,  62; 
educational  interpretation  of  the  move- 
ment, 66. 

Fisk  University,  appropriation  of  General 
Education  Board,  209. 

Flexner,  Abraham,  Assistant  Secretary  and 
member  of  General  Education  Board, 
xiii,  xiv. 

Florida,  extent  of  farm  demonstration 
work  in,  37;  Professor  of  Secondary  Ed- 
ucation provided  for,  82;  amends  consti- 
tution to  allow  issue  of  school  bonds,  87; 
number  of  high  schools  established,  90; 
amount  invested  in  new  school  buildings, 
91;  appropriations  of  General  Educa- 
tion Board  for  secondary  education,  93; 
appropriations  to  and  total  amounts  sub- 
scribed to  colleges,  155. 

Florida  Baptist  Academy,  aided  by  Gen- 
eral Education  Board,  203,  209. 

Frankfort,  Ky.,  normal  school  for  Negroes 
founded,  192. 

Franklin  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  appropria- 
tion to  and  total  amount  of  subscrip- 
tions, 159. 

Freedmen's  Aid  Society,  early  efforts  in 
Negro  education,  IQI. 

Frisscll.  l)r.  H.  B.,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv;  aids  in  organiza- 
tion of  Jeanes  Fund,  n  Note. 


248 


INDEX 


Furman  University,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  121;  appropriations 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
156. 

Gates,  Frederick  T.,  Chairman  and  mem- 
ber of  General  Education  Board,  xiii,  3; 
corresponding  secretary  American  Bap- 
tist Education  Society,  6  Note. 

General  Education  Board,  membership  of. 
xiii,  xiv,  3,  4;  beginnings  of,  3;  Act  of 
Incorporation,  3.  See  also  Appendix  I, 
pp.  212-215;  objects  and  scope  of,  3,  7; 
range  of  activities,  5;  contributions  to 
universities  and  colleges,  7,  108-112; 
policy  of,  13;  appropriations  to  June  30, 
1914,  17;  cooperates  with  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  extension  of  farm  dem- 
onstrations, 25;  extends  demonstra- 
tion work  throughout  the  South,  35; 
organization  of  the  demonstration  work, 
42;  appropriations  for  demonstration 
work,  46;  appropriations  for  Girls'  Can- 
ning Clubs,  65;  provides  for  Professors  of 
Secondary  Education,  81;  aids  in  fram- 
ing educational  legislation,  87;  appro- 
priations for  secondary  schools,  92;  re- 
lation to  colleges  and  universities,  108; 
appropriations  for  higher  education, 
108,  143;  system  of  endowments  to  col- 
leges, 142,  144;  reasons  for  declining  aid 
to  certain  colleges,  147;  care  in  investi- 
gation of  colleges  aided,  148;  help  to  col- 
leges in  management  of  finances,  149; 
effect  of  contributions  to  colleges,  153; 
total  subscriptions  to  colleges,  155;  by 
sections,  156;  aids  medical  education, 
160;  appropriation  for  Johns  Hopkins 
Medical  School,  167;  appropriations  for 
Washington  University  Medical  School, 
170;  appropriations  for  Yale  University 
Medical  Department,  171;  requested  to 
undertake  supervision  of  rural  schools, 
180;  estabjishes  rural  education  agents, 
187;  assisting  the  Negro  to  help  himself, 
193;  extends  work  of  state  supervisors  of 
Negro  schools,  194;  appropriations  for 
supervisors  of  Negro  schools,  196;  ap- 
propriations for  Negro  schools  and  insti- 
tutes, 203;  appropriations  for  Negro  col- 
leges and  universities,  209. 

George  Peabody  College  for  Teachers,  en- 
dowed by  Peabody  Education  Fund,  9; 
its  success,  102;  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Georgetown  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Georgia,  conference  of  county  superintend- 
ents, 12;  state  school  fund  (1903),  19; 
average  school  term  (1903),  20;  map 
Bulloch  County,  showing  demonstration 
farms,  47;  high  schools  and  obstructive 


legislation,  78;  state  university  pro- 
vides for  preparatory  schools,  79;  Pro- 
fessor of  Secondary  Education  pro- 
vided for,  82;  legislation  favorable  to 
secondary  schools,  86;  State  Board  of 
Education  created,  87;  state  raises  quali- 
fications for  teachers,  87;  number  high 
schools  established  and  pupils  enrolled", 
oo;  number  high  school  teachers,  91; 
amount  invested  in  new  school  buildings, 
92;  state  apportionment  for  high  schools, 
92;  appropriations  General  Education 
Board  for  secondary  education,  93;  ap- 
propriationsforagricultural  high  schools, 
97;  appropriations  to  and  total  amount 
subscribed  to  colleges,  156;  supervisor 
of  Negro  rural  schools  created,  195;  in- 
dustrial school  erected  by  Negroes,  201. 

Gilman,  Daniel  C.,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiii,  3. 

Girls'  Canning  and  Poultry  Clubs, 
founded,  62;  growth  of,  showing  number 
enrolled,  64;  profits  of  members,  65;  ap- 
propriations for,  65. 

Government  control  of  colleges,  105. 

Greene,  Jerome  D.,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv. 

Greensboro,  N.  C.,  normal  school  for  Ne- 
groes in,  192. 

Grinnell  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  124;  appropriations 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
158. 

Haygood,  Bishop,  general  agent  Slater 
Fund,  10. 

Hamilton  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Hamline  University,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Hampton  Institute,  aided  by  Peabody 
Education  Fund,  9;  aided  by  Slater 
Fund,  10;  aids  in  demonstration  work 
among  Negro  farmers,  54;  aid  in  Negro 
educatjon,  191;  graduates  as  industrial 
supervisors,  196;  large  summer  schools 
held,  200;  appropriations  from  General 
Education  Board,  203. 

Hanna,  Hugh  H,  member  of  General  Ed- 
ucation Board,  xiv. 

Harper,  William  R.,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv. 

Harvard  University,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  130;  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscription,  159. 

Hay,  results  of  crop  diversification  in  South 
Carolina,  53. 

Heck,  William  H.,  Assistant  Secretary  of 
General  Education  Board,  xiii. 

Hendrix  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  121;  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 


INDEX 


249 


High  schools, in  Southern  States,  72;  obsta- 
cles to  development,  78;  legislatures  pro- 
vide for,  79;  campaigning  for,  by  Profes- 
sors of  Secondary  Education,  83;  favor- 
able legislation.  86;  state  grants  to  aid, 
87;  results  of  favorable  legislation,  88; 
number  of,  and  student  enrolments,  oo; 
number  of  teachers,  91 ;  amount  invested 
in  new  buildings,  QI;  state  apportion- 
ments and  private  subscriptions,  92; 
appropriations  by  General  Education 
Board.  92;  the  curriculum,  95;  college 
relationship  to,  98;  the  consolidation 
movement.  101. 

Higher  education  of  the  Negro.  203. 

Hospitals,  of  university  medical  schools, 
164,  168.  171,  173. 

Howard  College,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Howe  Institute,  aided  by  General  Educa- 
tion Board,  203. 

Huron  College,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Illinois,  appropriation  to  and  total  amount 
subscribed  to  colleges  in,  158. 

Indiana,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  in,  157. 

Industrial  supervisors,  duties  of,  196. 

Iowa,  number  of  colleges  in,  109;  appro- 
priations to  and  total  amount  subscribed 
to  colleges  in.  158. 

Jeanes.  Miss  Anna  T..  gifts  to  aid  Negro 
rural  schools,  it  Note,  16;  cooperation 
in  Negro  education,  196. 

Jeanes  Fund,  cooperation  with  General 
Education  Board  in  Negro  education. 
190;  aids  Negro  schools  in  Alabama,  202. 

Jeruel  Academy,  aided  by  General  Educa- 
tion Board.  203. 

Jesup,  Morris  K.,  member  of  General  Edu- 
cation Board,  xiii.  3. 

John  B.  Stetson  University,  appropria- 
tion to  and  total  amount  of  subscrip- 
tions, 157. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 

156- 

Johns  Hopkins  University  Medical  School, 
first  of  the  new  type,  162;  laboratory 
branches  of.  162;  clinical  branches,  164; 
"full-time"  clinical  teachers,  166.  172, 
175.  I77J  the  William  H.  Welch  Endow- 
ment, 167. 

Judson,  Harry  Pratt,  member  of  General 
Education  Hoard,  xiv. 

Kalama/jx>  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  sul>scriptions.  158. 

Kansas,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  in,  i  $8. 


Kentucky,  Professor  of  Secondary  Educa- 
tion provided  for,  82;  number  of  high 
school  pupils  enrolled,  91;  appropria- 
tions of  General  Education  Board  for 
secondary  education  in,  93;  appropria- 
tions to  and  total  amount  subscribed  to 
colleges  of,  157;  unfavorable  educational 
conditions,  183;  recent  developments  in 
rural  education,  185;  supervisor  of  Ne- 
gro rural  schools  created,  195;  new 
schools  for  Negroes,  201. 

Knapp,  Dr.  Seaman  A.,  lecturing  at  Texas 
Agricultural  College,  23;  establishes  cot- 
ton demonstration  farm,  23;  confers  with 
officers  of  General  Education  Board  in 
Washington,  24;  takes  charge  of  farm 
demonstration  work,  26;  interests  the 
fanners  in  modern  methods,  27;  his  ten 
agricultural  commandments,  29;  his 
teaching  of  business  management  and 
diversified  farming,  30;  work  with  Negro 
cotton  farmers,  54;  interests  in  Boys' 
Corn  Clubs,  58;  adopts  Girls'  Canning 
Club  idea,  62;  his  last  work,  66. 

Knox  College,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Lafayette  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Lake  Forest  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn.  127;  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Lane  College,  appropriation  General  Edu- 
cation Board,  209. 

Lawrence  College,  appropriations  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Livingstone  College,  appropriation  General 
Education  Board,  209. 

Louisiana,  salaries  of  educational  officers, 
i9;Iow  salaries  of  teachers  (1903),  20;  per 
capita  expenditure  on  school  children. 
20;  extent  of  farm  demonstration  work 
in,  37;  high  school  conditions  in,  77; 
Professor  of  Secondary  Education  pro- 
vided for,  82;  appropriations  General 
Education  Board  for  secondary  educa- 
tion, 93;  proportion  of  rural  population, 
180;  teachers  changed  too  frequently. 
184;  recent  developments  in  rural  educa- 
tion, 185. 

Macalester  College,  appropriations  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions.  158. 

MacDonald  College,  study  of  its  mcttuxls. 
J.V 

Maine,  extent  of  farm  demonstration  work 
in,  37;  map  showing  counties  having 
demonstrations,  43;  appropriations  to 
and  total  amount  subscribed  to  colleges 
in,  159. 

Manassas  (Va.)  Industrial  Institute.  191. 

Manual  training,  appropriations  for,  97. 


250 


INDEX 


Marietta  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  124;  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
157- 

Marston,  Edgar  L.,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv. 

Maryville  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Maryland,  extent  of  farm  demonstration 
work  in,  37;  number  of  colleges  in,  109; 
appropriations  to  and  total  amount  sub- 
scribed to  colleges,  156. 

Massachusetts,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  in,  159. 

Medical  education,  development  of,  in 
America,  160;  changes  in  recent  years, 
161;  new  type  of  medical  school,  162; 
laboratory  branches,  162;  clinical 
branches,  164;  "full-time"  clinical 
teachers,  166,  172,  175,  177;  the  Wm.  H. 
Welch  Endowment,  167;  freedom  un- 
restricted, 172;  the  pay  ward,  173;  the 
general  practitioner,  175;  positions  at- 
tractive, 177. 

Medical  schools,  appropriations  for,  17; 
meagre  facilities  of,  160;  decrease  of  and 
improvement  in,  161;  number  of,  in 
United  States,  161;  the  new  type  of,  162; 
Washington  University  Medical  School, 
168;  Yale  University  Medical  Depart- 
ment, 171. 

Mercer  University,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Meredith  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Michigan,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  of,  158. 

Middlebury  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Millsaps  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  121;  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Minnesota,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  of,  158. 

Mississippi,  state  school  fund  (1003),  19; 
short  school  term  (1003),  20;  extent  of 
farm  demonstration  work,  37;  location 
of  demonstration  farms,  38,  39,  41 ;  dem- 
onstration work  among  Negro  farmers, 
54;  Boys'  Corn  Clubs  set  new  standard 
of  yield,  59;  state  university  abolishes  its 
preparatory  department,  80;  Professor 
of  .Secondary  Education  provided  for, 
82;  county  agricultural  high  schools  es- 
tablished, 87;  number  of  high  schools 
established  and  pupils  enrolled,  oo; 
amount  invested  in  new  school  buildings, 
91;  appropriations  of  General  Education 
Board  for  secondary  education,  93; 
county  agricultural  high  schools  held 
up  as  example,  97;  appropriations  and 
total  amount  subscribed  to  colleges  of, 


156;  proportion  of  rural  population,  180; 
teachers  changed  too  frequently,  184; 
recent  developments  in  rural  education, 
184. 

Mississippi  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Missouri,  number  of  colleges,  109;  appro- 
priation to  and  total  amount  subscribed 
to  colleges  in,  158. 

Montgomery,  Ala.,  normal  school  for  Ne- 
groes in,  192. 

Morningside  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Mortgaging  of  cotton  crops,  economic  fal- 
lacy of,  30. 

Mount  Holyoke  College,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Mt.  Meigs,  Ala.,  Negro  school  at,  192. 

Murphy,  Starr  J.,  member  of  General  Ed- 
ucation Board,  xiv. 

Myers,  Louis  G.,  treasurer  of  General  Edu- 
cation Board,  xiii. 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  normal  school  for  Ne- 
groes at,  192. 

Negro  Education,  schools  aided  by  Pea- 
body  Education  Fund,  9;  trust  funds 
for,  9, 10,  n;  discussed  at  Conference  of 
County  Superintendents  of  Georgia,  1 2 ; 
appropriations  of  General  Education 
Board  for,  17;  school  houses  built  in  Vir- 
ginia by  local  subscriptions,  182;  interest 
of  General  Education  Board  hi,  190; 
first  steps  in,  191 ;  institutes  and  private 
schools,  191;  normal  schools,  192;  the 
public  school  fundamental,  192;  state 
supervision  of  Negro  rural  schools,  194; 
cooperation  of  the  Jeanes  Fund,  196; 
work  of  industrial  supervisors,  196; 
new  school  houses  and  improvements, 
197;  improved  relations  of  races  due  to, 
199;  improvement  of  teachers,  200;  self- 
help,  201;  appropriations  of  General 
Education  Board  to  industrial  insti- 
tutes, 203;  higher  education,  203;  forma- 
tion of  better  teaching  staff,  205. 

Negro  farm  demonstration  agents,  number 
of,  and  results  achieved  by,  55. 

Negroes,  farm  demonstration  among,  54; 
increased  yield  and  value  of  crops,  55; 
home  life  improved  by  farm  demonstra- 
tions, 55;  percentage  living  on  farms, 
IQ3- 

New  Hampshire,  extent  of  farm  demon- 
stration work  in,  37;  map  showing  coun- 
ties having  farm  demonstrations,  44. 

New  Jersey,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  of,  1 59. 

New  York,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  of,  159. 

Normal,  Ala.,  normal  school  for  Negroes  at, 
192. 


INDEX 


251 


Normal  schools  for  Negroes  in  South,  192. 

North  Carolina,  salaries  of  educational 
officers,  ig;  per  capita  expenditure  on 
school  children,  20;  extent  of  farm  dem- 
onstration work  in,  37;  condition  of 
high  schools  in,  73;  private  schools,  74; 
Professor  of  Secondary  Education  pro- 
vided for,  82;  state  grants  in  aid  of  high 
schools,  87;  raises  qualifications  for 
teachers,  87;  number  of  high  schools 
established  and  pupils  enrolled,  oo; 
amount  invested  in  school  buildings,  91; 
state  apportionment  for  high  schools,  92; 
private  subscriptions  for,  high  schools, 
92;  appropriations  of  General  Education 
Board  for  secondary  education,  93;  ap- 
propriations for  farm-life  schools,  97; 
appropriations  to  and  total  amount  sub- 
scribed to  colleges  of,  156;  annual  expen- 
diture for  public  schools,  182;  recent  de- 
velopments in  rural  education,  184; 
creates  supervisor  of  Negro  rural  schools, 
195- 

Northwestern  University,  territory  from 
which  students  are  drawn,  127;  appro- 
priation to  and  total  amount  of  sub- 
scriptions, 158. 

Oberlin  College,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Ogden,  Robert  C.,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiii,  3;  organizer  of 
Southern  Education  Board,  n. 

Ohio,  number  of  colleges  in,  109;  appro- 
priation to  and  total  amount  subscribed 
to  colleges  of,  157. 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
'57- 

Oklahoma,  extent  of  farm  demonstration 
work  in,  37. 

Orangeburg,  N.  C.,  normal  school  for  Ne- 
groes at,  192. 

Ottawa  University,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Page,  Walter  H.,  member  of  General  Edu- 
cation Board,  xiii,  3. 

Pay  ward  of  university  hospital,  proper 
function  of,  173. 

Peabody,  George  Foster,  treasurer  and 
member  of  General  Education  Board, 
xiii,  xiv. 

Peabody  Education  Fund,  work  in  the 
South,  8,  9;  history  of,  9;  cooperates 
with  state  in  holding  teachers'  institutes 
in  Alabama,  10;  cooperates  with  South- 
ern Education  Board.  180;  dissolution 
of,  181;  with  Southern  Education 
Board  support  state  supervisor  of  Ne- 
gro schools,  194. 

Pennsylvania,  number  of  colleges  in,  109; 


appropriations  to  and  total  amount  sub- 
scribed to  colleges  in,  159. 

Pennsylvania  College,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Petersburg,  Va.,  normal  school  for  Negroes 
at,  192. 

Phelps-Stokes  Fund  aids  study  of  Negro 
schools  and  Negro  problems,  n  Note. 

Pine  Bluff,  Ark.,  normal  school  for  Ne- 
groes at,  192. 

Pomona  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  124;  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Poultry  clubs,  girls,  62. 

Prairie  View,  Tex.,  normal  school  for  Ne- 
groes at,  192. 

Prescott,  Ark.,  builds  high  school,  88. 

Princeton  University,  relationship  to  reli- 
gious institution,  139;  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Professors  of  Secondary  Education,  appro- 
priations of  General  Education  Board 
for,  17;  provided  for  by  Board,  81;  duties 
of,  81;  methods  of  work,  82,  89. 

Randolph -M  aeon  College,  appropriations 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
156. 

Randolph-Macon  Woman's  College,  ap- 
propriation to  and  total  amount  of  sub- 
scriptions, 156. 

Richmond  Coflege,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  121;  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
156. 

Ripon  College,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Rhode  Island,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  of,  159. 

Rockefeller  Institute  for  Medical  Research, 
gifts  from  General  Education  Board,  16 
Note. 

Rockefeller,  John  D.,  founds  General  Edu- 
cation Board,  3;  educational  benefac- 
tions prior  to  1902,  6;  gifts  to  University 
of  Chicago,  6;  interest  in  Southern  educa- 
tion, 12;  initial  gift  and  permanent  en- 
dowments to  General  Education  Board, 
15;  final  gifts  to  University  of  Chicago, 
146. 

Rockefeller,  John  D.,  Jr.,  member  of  Gen- 
eral Education  Board,  xiv,  3. 

Rose,  Dr.  Wickliffe,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv;  general  agent 
Peabody  Education  Fund,  9. 

Rural  education,  organizations  interested 
in.  ii  Nate;  importance  of.  in  the  South. 
180;  favorable  conditions,  181;  unfavor- 
able conditions,  182;  recent  develop- 
ments in,  184. 

Rural  education  agents,  establishment  of, 
187;  functions  of,  187. 


252 


INDEX 


Rural  Organization  Service,  appropria- 
tions of  General  Education  Board  for, 
17- 

Rural  population,  proportion  of,  in  South- 
ern states,  1 80. 

Rural-life  schools,  97. 

Rural  school  supervisors,  179. 

Rural  schools  for  Negroes,  funds  for,  n 
Note. 

Rural  school  agents,  appropriations  of  Gen- 
eral Education  Board  for,  17. 

Sage,  Eben  Charles,  assistant  secretary  of 
General  Education  Board,  xiii. 

St.  Helena  Island,  S.  C.,  Negro  school  at, 
192. 

St.  Lawrence  University,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Salaries  of  educational  officers  and  teachers 
in  the  South  (1003),  19,  20. 

Salem  Academy  and  College,  appropria- 
tion to  and  total  amount  of  subscrip- 
tions, 156. 

Sears,  Dr.  Barnas,  general  agent  Peabody 
Education  Fund,  9. 

Secondary  education,  favorable  legislation 
to,  86;  results  of  such  encouragement, 
88;  appropriations  of  General  Education 
Board,  93;  college  relationship  with,  98; 
high  school  consolidation,  101. 

Secondary  Education  Conference,  appro- 
priation for,  93. 

Shaw,  Albert,  member  of  General  Educa- 
tion Board,  xiv,  3. 

Shaw  University,  appropriation  of  Gen- 
eral Education  Board  for,  209. 

Shepard,  Edward  M.,  3. 

Slater,  John  F.,  leaves  fund  for  Negro  edu- 
cation, 10. 

Slater  Fund,  work  in  the  South,  8;  history 
of,  10;  work  in  Negro  education,  100; 
contribute  to  summer  schools  for  Negro 
teachers,  200;  helps  maintain  Industrial 
Academy,  202. 

Slater  Normal  School  for  Negroes,  200. 

Smith  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  133;  appropriations 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
IS9- 

Snow  Hill,  Ala.,  Negro  school  at,  191. 

South  Carolina,  salaries  of  educational 
officers,  19;  low  salaries  of  teachers 
(1903),  20;  extent  of  farm  demonstration 
work  in,  37;  crop  diversification  gains 
favor,  52;  hay  crop  a  success,  53;  yield 
and  value  of  crops  of  Negro  farmers  in- 
creased by  demonstration,  5  5 ;  Girls'  Can- 
ning Clubs  inaugurated.  63;  condition  of 
high  schools,  74,  78;  private  schools,  75; 
Professor  of  Secondary  Education  pro- 
vided for,  82;  state  grants  in  aid  of  high 
schools,  87;  number  of  high  schools  es- 


tablished, oo;  number  of  high  school 
teachers  and  pupils,  91 ;  amount  invested 
in  new  school  buildings,  92;  state  appor- 
tionment for  high  schools,  92;  appro- 
priations of  General  Education  Board 
lor  secondary  education,  93;  high  school- 
college  relationship,  100;  comparison  of 
high  schools  with  Colorado,  102;  appro- 
priations to  and  total  amount  subscribed 
to  colleges  of,  156;  annual  expenditure 
for  public  schools,  182;  recent  develop- 
ments in  rural  education,  185. 

South  Dakota,  appropiations  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  of ,  158. 

Southern  Education  Board,  its  work  and 
field,  8;  history  of,  n;  cooperation  with 
Peabody  Fund,  179;  with  Peabody  Fund 
supports  state  supervisor  of  Negro 

Schools,    1Q4. 

Southern  Methodist  University,  appropria- 
tion to  and  total  amount  of  subscrip- 
tions, 157. 

Spelman  Seminary,  aided  by  Slater  Fund, 
10;  appropriations  of  General  Educa- 
tion Board  for,  203. 

State  agricultural  colleges  in  charge  of 
farm  demonstration  work,  37,  42  Note. 

State  regulation  of  colleges,  106. 

Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  appro- 
priation of  General  Education  Board  for, 
108  Note;  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Stokes,  Anson  Phelps,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv. 

Supervisors  of  Negro  rural  schools,  pro- 
vision for,  194;  duties  of,  195. 

Swarthmore  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  121;  appropria- 
tion to  and  total  amount  of  subscrip- 
tions, 159. 

Tallahassee,  Fla.,  normal  school  for  Ne- 
groes at,  192. 

Tennessee,  salaries  of  educational  officers, 
19;  average  school  term  (1003),  20;  ex- 
tent of  farm  demonstration  in,  37;  pri- 
vate and  preparatory  schools,  75;  legis- 
lature provides  for  high  schools,  79;  Pro- 
fessor of  Secondary  Education  provided 
for,  82;  raises  qualifications  for  teachers, 
87;  number  of  high  schools  established, 
90;  number  high  school  pupils  enrolled, 
91;  number  high  school  teachers,  91; 
amount  invested  in  new  school  buildings, 
91 ;  state  apportionment  for  high  schools, 
92;  private  subscriptions  forhighschools, 
92;  appropriations  General  Education 
Board  for  secondary  education;  93;  ap- 
propriations for  teaching  agriculture, 
domestic  science,  and  manual  training, 
97;  number  of  colleges,  109;  appropria- 
tions to  and  total  amount  subscribed  to 


INDEX 


253 


colleges,  157;  annual  expenditure  for 
public  schools,  182;  creates  supervisor 
of  Negro  rural  schools.  195. 

Texas,  cotton  boll-weevil  demonstration 
farm  established  by  Dr.  Knapp,  23; 
extent  of  farm  demonstration  work  in, 
37;  total  amount  subscribed  to  colleges 
in,  157. 

Thompson  Institute,  aided  by  General 
Education  Board,  203. 

Tobacco  acreage  reduced  by  crop  diver- 
sification, 5;. 

Tomatoes,  Girls'  Canning  Clubs,  62. 

Transylvania  University,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Trinity  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  121;  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
156. 

Fuskegee  Institute.aided  byPeabody  Edu- 
cation Fund,  o;  aided  by  Slater  Fund. 
10;  assists  in  demonstration  work  among 
Negro  farmers,  54;  aid  in  Negro  educa- 
tion, 191;  graduates  as  industrial  super- 
visors, too;  visits  of  inspection,  199; 
large  summer  schools  held,  200;  appro- 
priations of  General  Education  Board 
for,  203. 

Union  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn.  121;  appropriations 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
ISO- 
Union  University,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

University  of  Chattanooga,  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
iS7- 

University  of  Chicago,  established,  6;  gifts 
from  General  Education  Board.  16  Si  ate; 
benefited  by  its  location,  137. 

University  of  Denver,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions.  158. 

University  of  Rochester,  territory-  from 
which  students  are  drawn.  121;  appro- 
priations to  and  total  amount  of  sub- 
scriptions, 159. 

University  of  Vermont,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions.  159. 

University  of  Virginia,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions.  156. 

University  of  Wooster,  appropriations  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions.  157. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
in  charge  of  all  farm  demonstration 
work.  J7.  40. 

Utica,  Miss..  Negro  sch<x>l  at,  192. 

Vanderbilt  University,  preparatory  schools 
for.  75;  radius  from  which  students  are 
drawn,  121;  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions.  157. 


Vassar  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  133. 

Vermont,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges,  159. 

Vincent,  George  E.,  member  of  General 
Education  Board,  xiv. 

Virginia,  salaries  of  educational  officers, 
19;  average  school  term  (1903),  20;  ex- 
tent of  farm  demonstration  work  in.  37; 
tobacco  acreage  reduced  by  crop  diver- 
sification^; demonstration  work  among 
Negro  farmers,  54;  condition  of  high 
schools,  73;  private  schools,  75;  state 
subsidy  to  sustain  high  schools  proposed. 
79;  Professor  of  Secondary  Education 
provided  for,  82;  state  grants  in  aid  of 
nigh  schools.  87;  number  of  high  schools 
established,  90;  number  of  high  school 
pupils  enrolled,  91;  amount  invested  in 
new  school  buildings,  92;  appropriations 
General  Education  Board  for  secondary 
education,  93;  appropriations  for  teach- 
ing agriculture  and  manual  training,  97; 
appropriations  to  and  total  amount  sub- 
scribed to  colleges,  156;  devotes  half  of 
net  revenue  to  education.  182;  creates 
supervisor  of  Negro  rural  schools,  195; 
work  of  industrial  supervisors  among 
Negroes,  107;  success  of  Negro  Girls' 
Canning  Clubs,  197;  schools  ouilt  and 
maintained  by  Negroes,  201. 

Virginia  Union  University,  appropriation 
General  Education  Board,  209. 

Wabash  College,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

Wake  Forest  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 

Washburn  College,  appropriations  to  and 
total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Washington,  appropriations  to  and  total 
amount  subscribed  to  colleges  of  state, 
158. 

\\ashington.  Dr.  Booker  T..  aids  in  or- 
ganization of  Jeanes  Fund,  n  \olf. 

Washington  and  Jefferson  College,  appro- 
priation to  and  total  amount  of  sub- 
scriptions. 159. 

Washington  and  Lee  University,  appro- 
priations to  and  total  amount  of  sub- 
scriptions. 156. 

Washington  University,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 

Washington  University  Medical  School, 
reorganization  of.  168;  cooperative  ar- 
rangement with.  Barnes  Hospital  ami 
Children's  Hospital,  169;  appropriation 
of  General  Education  Board.  170. 

Waters  Normal  Institute,  aided  by  Gen- 
eral Education  Board.  203. 

Wellesley  College,  appropriation  to  and 
total  amount  of  sul>scnptions,  159. 


254 


INDEX 


Wells  College,  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  of  subscriptions,  159. 

Wesleyan  Female  College,  appropriation 
to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 
156. 

\\esleyan  University,  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  150. 

\VestVirginia.Professor  of  Secondary  Edu- 
cation provided  for,  82;  state  grants  in 
aid  of  high  schools,  87;  raises  qualifica- 
tions for  teachers,  87;  number  of  high 
schools  established,  go;  amount  invested 
in  new  school  buildings,  91 ;  appropria- 
tions of  General  Education  Board  for 
secondary  education,  93. 

Western  College  for  Women,  appropria- 
tion to  and  total  amount  of  subscrip- 
tions, 157. 

Western  Reserve  College,  benefits  by  re- 
moval, 127;  appropriation  to  and  total 
amount  subscriptions,  157. 

Whitman  College,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  124;  appropriation  to 
and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 

William  H.  Welch  Endowment  for  Clinical 
Education  and  Research,  168. 


William  Jewell  College,  appropriation  to 

and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  158. 
Williams    College,    territory    from    which 

students  are  drawn,  130;  appropriation 

to  and  total  amount  of  subscriptions, 

159- 
Williamsburg  Institute,  appropriation  to 

and  total  amount  of  subscriptions,  157. 
Winston-Salem,  N.  C.,  normal  school  for 

Negroes  at,  192. 
Wisconsin,    appropriations    to    and    total 

amount  subscribed  to  colleges  in,  1 58. 
Wofford   College,   appropriations   to   and 

total  amount  of  subscriptions,  156. 
Women's   College   in   Brown    University, 

appropriation  to  and   total  amount  of 

subscriptions,  159. 

Yale  University,  territory  from  which 
students  are  drawn,  130;  relationship 
up  to  religious  institution,  139;  appro- 
priation to  and  total  amount  of  subscrip- 
tions, 159. 

Yale  University  Medical  Department,  re- 
organization of,  171,  appropriation  of 
General  Education  Board,  171. 


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